Unification in monoidal theories is solving linear equations over semirings

Although for numerous equational theories unification algorithms have been developed there is still a lack of general methods. In this paper we apply algebraic techniques to the study of a whole class of theories, which we call monoidal. Our approach leads to general results on the structure of unification algorithms and the unification type of such theories. An equational theory is monoidal if it contains a binary operation which is associative and commutative, an identity for the binary operation, and an arbitrary number of unary symbols which are homomorphisms for the binary operation and the identity. Monoidal theories axiomatize varieties of abelian monoids. Examples are the theories of abelian monoids (AC), idempotent abelian monoids (ACI), and abelian groups. To every monoidal theory we associate a semiring. Intuitively, semirings are rings without subtraction. We show that every unification problem in a monoidal theory can be translated into a system of linear equations over the corresponding semiring. More specifically, problems without free constants are translated into homogeneous equations. For problems with free constants inhomogeneous equations have to be solved in addition. Exploiting the correspondence between unification and linear algebra we give algebraic characterizations of the unification type of a theory. In particular, we show that with respect to unification without constants monoidal theories are either unitary or nullary. Applying Hilbert\u27s Basis Theorem we prove that theories of groups with commuting homomorphisms are unitary with respect to unification with and without constants

Adding homomorphisms to commutative/monoidal theories or : how algebra can help in equational unification

Two approaches to equational unification can be distinguished. The syntactic approach relies heavily on the syntactic structure of the identities that define the equational theory. The semantic approach exploits the structure of the algebras that satisfy the theory. With this paper we pursue the semantic approach to unification. We consider the class of theories for which solving unification problems is equivalent to solving systems of linear equations over a semiring. This class has been introduced by the authors independently of each other as commutative theories (Baader) and monoidal theories (Nutt). The class encompasses important examples like the theories of abelian monoids, idempotent abelian monoids, and abelian groups. We identify a large subclass of commutative/monoidal theories that are of unification type zero by studying equations over the corresponding semiring. As a second result, we show with methods from linear algebra that unitary and finitary commutative/monoidal theories do not change their unification type when they are augmented by a finite monoid of homomorphisms, and how algorithms for the extended theory can be obtained from algorithms for the basic theory. The two results illustrate how using algebraic machinery can lead to general results and elegant proofs in unification theory

On the Model of Computation of Place/Transition Petri Nets

In the last few years, the semantics of Petri nets has been investigated in several different ways. Apart from the classical "token game", one can model the behaviour of Petri nets via non-sequential processes, via unfolding constructions, which provide formal relationships between nets and domains, and via algebraic models, which view Petri nets as essentially algebraic theories whose models are monoidal categories. In this paper we show that these three points of view can be reconciled. More precisely, we introduce the new notion of decorated processes of Petri nets and we show that they induce on nets the same semantics as that of unfolding. In addition, we prove that the decorated processes of a net N can be axiomatized as the arrows of a symmetric monoidal category which, therefore, provides the aforesaid unification

Towards 3-Dimensional Rewriting Theory

String rewriting systems have proved very useful to study monoids. In good cases, they give finite presentations of monoids, allowing computations on those and their manipulation by a computer. Even better, when the presentation is confluent and terminating, they provide one with a notion of canonical representative of the elements of the presented monoid. Polygraphs are a higher-dimensional generalization of this notion of presentation, from the setting of monoids to the much more general setting of n-categories. One of the main purposes of this article is to give a progressive introduction to the notion of higher-dimensional rewriting system provided by polygraphs, and describe its links with classical rewriting theory, string and term rewriting systems in particular. After introducing the general setting, we will be interested in proving local confluence for polygraphs presenting 2-categories and introduce a framework in which a finite 3-dimensional rewriting system admits a finite number of critical pairs

Process versus Unfolding Semantics for Place/Transition Petri Nets

In the last few years, the semantics of Petri nets has been investigated in several different ways. Apart from the classical "token game," one can model the behaviour of Petri nets via non-sequential processes, via unfolding constructions, which provide formal relationships between nets and domains, and via algebraic models, which view Petri nets as essentially algebraic theories whose models are monoidal categories. In this paper we show that these three points of view can be reconciled. In our formal development a relevant role is played by DecOcc, a category of occurrence nets appropriately decorated to take into account the history of tokens. The structure of decorated occurrence nets at the same time provides natural unfoldings for Place/Transition (PT) nets and suggests a new notion of processes, the decorated processes, which induce on Petri nets the same semantics as that of unfolding. In addition, we prove that the decorated processes of a net can be axiomatized as the arrows of a symmetric monoidal category which, therefore, provides the aforesaid unification

An interactive semantics of logic programming

We apply to logic programming some recently emerging ideas from the field of reduction-based communicating systems, with the aim of giving evidence of the hidden interactions and the coordination mechanisms that rule the operational machinery of such a programming paradigm. The semantic framework we have chosen for presenting our results is tile logic, which has the advantage of allowing a uniform treatment of goals and observations and of applying abstract categorical tools for proving the results. As main contributions, we mention the finitary presentation of abstract unification, and a concurrent and coordinated abstract semantics consistent with the most common semantics of logic programming. Moreover, the compositionality of the tile semantics is guaranteed by standard results, as it reduces to check that the tile systems associated to logic programs enjoy the tile decomposition property. An extension of the approach for handling constraint systems is also discussed.Comment: 42 pages, 24 figure, 3 tables, to appear in the CUP journal of Theory and Practice of Logic Programmin

Composites and Categories of Euclidean Jordan Algebras

We consider possible non-signaling composites of probabilistic models based on euclidean Jordan algebras (EJAs), satisfying some reasonable additional constraints motivated by the desire to construct dagger-compact categories of such models. We show that no such composite has the exceptional Jordan algebra as a direct summand, nor does any such composite exist if one factor has an exceptional summand, unless the other factor is a direct sum of one-dimensional Jordan algebras (representing essentially a classical system). Moreover, we show that any composite of simple, non-exceptional EJAs is a direct summand of their universal tensor product, sharply limiting the possibilities. These results warrant our focussing on concrete Jordan algebras of hermitian matrices, i.e., euclidean Jordan algebras with a preferred embedding in a complex matrix algebra}. We show that these can be organized in a natural way as a symmetric monoidal category, albeit one that is not compact closed. We then construct a related category InvQM of embedded euclidean Jordan algebras, having fewer objects but more morphisms, that is not only compact closed but dagger-compact. This category unifies finite-dimensional real, complex and quaternionic mixed-state quantum mechanics, except that the composite of two complex quantum systems comes with an extra classical bit. Our notion of composite requires neither tomographic locality, nor preservation of purity under tensor product. The categories we construct include examples in which both of these conditions fail. In such cases, the information capacity (the maximum number of mutually distinguishable states) of a composite is greater than the product of the capacities of its constituents.Comment: 60 pages, 3 tables. Substantially revised, with some new result

Quantum Picturalism

The quantum mechanical formalism doesn't support our intuition, nor does it elucidate the key concepts that govern the behaviour of the entities that are subject to the laws of quantum physics. The arrays of complex numbers are kin to the arrays of 0s and 1s of the early days of computer programming practice. In this review we present steps towards a diagrammatic `high-level' alternative for the Hilbert space formalism, one which appeals to our intuition. It allows for intuitive reasoning about interacting quantum systems, and trivialises many otherwise involved and tedious computations. It clearly exposes limitations such as the no-cloning theorem, and phenomena such as quantum teleportation. As a logic, it supports `automation'. It allows for a wider variety of underlying theories, and can be easily modified, having the potential to provide the required step-stone towards a deeper conceptual understanding of quantum theory, as well as its unification with other physical theories. Specific applications discussed here are purely diagrammatic proofs of several quantum computational schemes, as well as an analysis of the structural origin of quantum non-locality. The underlying mathematical foundation of this high-level diagrammatic formalism relies on so-called monoidal categories, a product of a fairly recent development in mathematics. These monoidal categories do not only provide a natural foundation for physical theories, but also for proof theory, logic, programming languages, biology, cooking, ... The challenge is to discover the necessary additional pieces of structure that allow us to predict genuine quantum phenomena.Comment: Commissioned paper for Contemporary Physics, 31 pages, 84 pictures, some colo