Transpolarizing surfaces and potencial applications

Postprint (published version

Calibration of airborne L-, X-, and P-band fully polarimetric SAR systems using various corner reflectors

Synthetic aperture radar polarimetry is one of the current developments in the field of remote sensing, due to the ability of delivering more information on the physical properties of the surface. It is known as the science of acquiring, processing and analysing the polarisation state in an electromagnetic field. The increase of information with respect to scalar radar comes at a price, not only for the high cost of building the radar system and processing the data or increasing the complexity of the design, but also for the amount of effort needed to calibrate the data. Synthetic aperture radar polarimetric calibration is an essential pre- processing stage for the correction of distortion interference which is caused by the system inaccuracies as well as atmospheric effects. Our goal, with this thesis, is to use multiple passive point targets to establish the difference between fully, and compact polarimetric synthetic aperture radar systems on both calibration, and the effects of penetration. First, we detail the selection, design, manufacture, and deployment of different passive point targets in the field for acquiring X- and P-band synthetic aperture radar data in the Netherlands. We started by presenting the selection and design of multiple passive point targets. These were a combination of classic trihedral and dihedral corner reflectors, as well as gridded trihedral and dihedral corner reflectors. Additionally, we detailed the construction of these corner reflectors. The number of constructed corner reflector totalled sixteen, where six are for X-band and six for P-band, as well as four gridded corner reflectors for X-band. Finally, we present the deployment of the corner reflectors at three different sites with carefully surveyed and oriented positions. a Then, we present the calibration of three different fully polarimetric synthetic aperture radar sensors. The first sensor is the L-band synthetic aperture radar sensor and we acquired data using two square trihedral corner reflectors. The calibration includes an evaluation of two crosstalk methods, which are the Quegan and the Ainsworth methods. The results showed that the crosstalk parameters for the Quegan method are all between -17 dB to -21 dB before calibration, while there is a small improvement in the range of 3 dB after calibration. While the Ainsworth method shows around -20 dB before calibration, and around -40 dB after calibration. Moreover, the phase, channel imbalance, and radiometric calibration were corrected using the two corner reflectors. Furthermore, the other two synthetic aperture radar sensors are X- and P-band synthetic aperture radar sensors, and we acquired polarimetric data using our sixteen corner reflectors. The calibration includes the crosstalk estimation, and correction using the Ainsworth method and the results showed the crosstalk parameters before calibration for X-band are around -23 dB, and they are around -43 dB after calibration, while crosstalk parameters before calibration for P-band are around -10 dB, and they are around -30 dB after calibration. The calibration also includes the phase, channel imbalance, and radiometric calibration, as well as geometric correction and signal noise ration measurement, for both X- and P-band. Next, we present the performance of gridded trihedral and dihedral corner reflectors using an X-band synthetic aperture radar system. The results showed both gridded trihedral and dihedral reflectors are perfect targets for correcting the amplitude compared to classical corner reflectors; however, it is not possible to use the gridded reflectors to correct the phase as we need a return from two channels to have a zero-phase difference between the polarisation channels H - V. Furthermore, we detail the compact polarimetric calibration over three com- pact polarimetric modes using a square trihedral corner reflector for the X-band dataset. The results showed no change in the π/mode while a 90ᵒ phase bias showed in the CTLR mode. Finally, the DCP mode showed a 64.43° phase difference, and it was corrected to have a zero phase, and the channel imbalance was very high at 45.92, the channels were adjusted to have a channel imbalance of 1. b Finally, an experiment to measure the penetration and reduction of P-band signal from a synthetic aperture radar system was performed using two triangular trihedral corner reflectors. Both of them have 1.5 m inner leg dimensions. The first triangular trihedral corner reflector was deployed in a deciduous grove of trees, while the other one was deployed a 10 m distance away on a grass covered field. After system calibration based on the reflector in the clear, the results showed a reduction of 0.6 dB in the HH channel, with 2.28 dB in the W channel. The larger attenuation at W is attributable to the vertical structure of the trees. Additionally, we measured the polarimetric degradation of the triangular trihedral corner reflector immersed in vegetation (trees). Further, after calibration, the co-polarisation phase difference is zero degrees for the triangular corner reflector which was outside the trees, and 62.85ᵒ for the corner reflector inside the trees. The designed and fabricated X- and P-band SAR can work operationally with the calibration parameters obtained in this thesis. The data generated through the calibration experiments can be exploited for further applications

Multifunctional metamaterial designs for antenna applications

Over the last decades, Metamaterials (MTMs) have caught the attention of the scientific community. Metamaterials are basically artificially engineered materials which can provide unusual electromagnetic properties not present in nature. Among other novel and special EM applications, such as the negative refraction index (NRI) application, Metamaterials allow the realisation of perfect magnetic conductors (PMCs), which are of interest in the development of smaller and more compact antenna systems composed of one or more antennas. In this context, this thesis is focused on investigating the feasibility of using metamaterial structures to improve the performance of antennas operating at the microwave frequencies. The metamaterial design process is challenging because metamaterials are primarily composed of resonant particles, and hence, their response is frequency dependent due to the dispersive behaviour of their effective medium properties. However, one can take advantage of this situation by exploiting those strange properties while finding other antenna applications for such metamaterial designs. For the case of the PMC applications, the relative magnetic permeability values are negative, because they are found just above the resonance of the metamaterial. This thesis investigates several antenna applications of artificial magnetic materials (AMMs). The initial work is devoted to the design of a spiral resonator (SR) AMM slab to realise a low profile reflector dipole antenna by taking advantage of its PMC response. The spiral resonator has been used due to its reduced unit cell size when compared to other metamaterial resonators, leading to a more homogeneous metamaterial structure. In addition, a bidirectional PMC spacer has been applied to produce a small and compact antenna system composed of two monopole antennas, although the concept may be applied to other antenna types. A third application as an AMC reflector are the transpolarising surfaces, where the incident electric field plane wave is reflected at a polarisation rotation angle of 90 degrees. Such surfaces may be of interest to produce high cross-polar response reflecting devices, like the modified trihedral corner reflector that has been tested for polarimetric synthetic aperture radar (PolSAR) purposes. Another application of the SR AMM metamaterial is the patch antenna with a magneto-dielectric loading. The relative magnetic permeability of the AMM metamaterial has values over the unity in the frequency band below the resonance. As a consequence, the patch antenna can be miniaturised without reducing its bandwidth of operation, in contrast to a typical high dielectric permittivity substrate. Finally, the SR AMM metamaterial also presents values of relative magnetic permeability between zero and the unity (MNZ). In such a case, the SR AMM metamaterial has been applied as an MNZ cover of a slot antenna, devoted to increasing the broadside radiated power and directivity of the antenna.En las últimas décadas, los Metamateriales (MTMs) han captado la atención de la comunidad científica internacional. Los metamateriales son básicamente materiales artificiales diseñados que tienen propiedades electromagnéticas inusuales no presentes en la naturaleza. Aparte de otras aplicaciones innovadoras en electromagnetismo, como la posibilidad de un material con un índice de refracción negativo (NRI), los metamateriales permiten realizar los conductores magnéticos perfectos (PMCs), que podrían ser de gran utilidad para implementar sistemas de múltiples antenas más pequeños y compactos. En este contexto, esta tesis se centra en investigar el uso de diferentes diseños de metamateriales para mejorar las prestaciones de sistemas radiantes o antenas que trabajan a frecuencias de microondas. El proceso de diseño de los metamateriales es complicado, porque los metamateriales están compuestos de resonadores magnéticos, y consecuentemente, su respuesta varía con la frecuencia a causa de la naturaleza dispersiva de sus parámetros de medio efectivo. No obstante, se pueden aprovechar estas propiedades extrañas para encontrar otras aplicaciones interesantes en antenas. Para el caso de aplicaciones como PMC, el valor de la permeabilidad magnética relativa toma principalmente valores negativos, ya que se encuentran después de la resonancia del metamaterial. Esta tesis realiza el estudio de diferentes aplicaciones de antenas con materiales magnéticos artificiales (AMMs). Primeramente, se ha diseñado un metamaterial AMM compuesto de resonadores en espiral (SRs), que se aplica para realizar un reflector de perfil bajo con una antena dipolo, aprovechando la respuesta PMC que proporciona el metamaterial. Se han utilizado resonadores en forma de espiral porque tienen una celda unidad más reducida al compararla con la de otros resonadores metamaterials, produciendo así una estructura metamaterial más homogénea. Además, un diseño PMC bidireccional ha permitido diseñar un sistema pequeño y compacto de dos antenas monopolo, aunque este concepto se puede aplicar a otros tipos de antenas. Una tercera aplicación como reflector AMC es el de pantalla transpolarizadora, dónde una onda eléctrica plana incidente es reflejada con un ángulo de rotación de 90 grados. Estas pantallas pueden servir para realizar dispositivos reflectores con una respuesta cruzada alta, como pasa con un triedro modificado que se ha probado con éxito en aplicaciones como calibrador de radar de apertura sintética polarimétrico (PolSAR). El metamaterial SR AMM también se ha utilizado como substrato magneto-dieléctrico de una antena impresa o patch. La permeabilidad magnética relativa de este metamaterial toma valores más grandes que la unidad en el rango de frecuencias por debajo de la resonancia. Por esto, la antena patch se puede miniaturizar sin reducir sus prestaciones de ancho de banda de operación, caso contrario a cuando se utilizan substratos de permitividad dieléctrica alta. Finalmente, el metamaterial SR AMM también toma valores de permeabilidad magnética relativa entre cero y la unidad (MNZ). En este caso, el metamaterial SR AMM se ha aplicado como un superestrato MNZ de una antena de ranura o slot, con la intención de incrementar la potencia radiada y la directividad de la antena