Bullying embraces the virtual world : elucidating the psychosocial determinants and correlates of traditional vs. cyberbullying types

Rapid technological development has drastically changed the social landscape, redefining the ways youth stay connected and communicate with one another. New technologies provide a virtual platform where cyberbullying behaviours are able to thrive. Although international research has made considerable progress in advancing our understanding of traditional forms of bullying, much remains to be done to uncover the complexities of cyberbullying phenomena. This thesis aims to address the research gaps and methodological limitations associated with cyberbullying research by conducting a mixed methods investigation from an ecological framework, to provide a richer and a more complete understanding of bullying phenomena. A total quantitative sample of 625 students was recruited from two NSW secondary schools across grades 7 through 10. A qualitative subsample of 81 participants drawn from the same two schools included the students (n = 57), their parents (n = 10), educational staff and school counsellors (n = 14). Three interrelated studies were conducted to advance cyberbullying research: Study 1 developed a new, psychometrically sound instrument titled the Adolescent Cyber Bullying Instrument (ACBI), which is grounded in a strong theoretical framework and which measures cyberbullying behaviours across all potential perspectives. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and tests of invariance revealed that the new continuous measure was valid and reliable. Study 2 used structural equation modelling (SEM) to uncover the effects of gender, grade, and school context on cyberbullying and traditional bullying behaviour, as well as to investigate the psychosocial correlates of involvement. The results revealed that students involved in any cyberbullying role (victim, bully, or bystander) were significantly more likely to report symptoms of depression, although to varying degrees. Generally speaking, cyber victims reported experiencing significantly lower perceptions of physical appearance and parental relations self-concept, whilst cyberbullies reported significantly poorer parental relations and verbal and mathematical (English and maths) self-concept. Interestingly, bystanders witnessing happy slapping behaviours (e.g., embarrassing situations that were set up, recorded and subsequently posted online) also reported significant experiences of depression. These results provide preliminary evidence suggesting that students involved in happy slapping incidents may also be at a greater risk of adverse mental health consequences. Lastly, Study 3 captured the perspectives of all school stakeholders involved (students, their parents, educators and school counsellors) by uncovering shared bullying experiences. Stakeholder interviews clarified definitions of different cyberbullying forms, why students engage in bullying perpetration, the impact bullying has on peers and families, reasons for the reluctance to disclose, the relation between traditional and cyber forms of bullying, and generated valuable practical suggestions to seed sustainable intervention/prevention programs addressing bullying. One of the most important findings showed that traditional forms of bullying and cyberbullying are positively correlated, suggesting that anti-bullying prevention programs need to target both forms of bullying, to effectively reduce all incidents, both offline and online. Preliminary results indicate that bullying begins in school hours and transfers across to online environments. This reveals that portable technology has provided bullying access to previously established safe havens such as the family home. Further implications of these findings for theory, research, and schools are discussed

Cyberbullying Victimization and Corresponding Distress in Women of Color

Online discrimination towards women and people of color has reached epidemic levels (Fox, Cruz, & Young Lee, 2015). Any woman or person of color who uses the internet runs the risk of attracting online users who would engage them in demeaning ways. As such, it is important that researchers are able to assess and understand these experiences and the possible effects on their well-being. In Chapter 1, I conducted a systematic review of cyberbullying measures. Although studies have documented the link between cyberbullying experiences and stress (i.e., psychological distress or perceived stress), there is a need to explore factors, such as intersectional identities, that may amplify this relationship. Using minority stress theory and intersectionality theory as a guiding framework, in Chapter 2, I examined three moderators of the relationship between cybervictimization experiences and stress—namely, attributing offenses to one’s race, gender, or both (i.e., being a woman of color). Data were collected from a sample of 275 adult women of color recruited from a large urban university in the southeast and through electronic listservs and social media platforms. Results from the study revelated that cybervictimization experiences were significant and positively related to both measures of stress. My primary hypotheses were partially supported. Attributions of cybervictimization to gender or race were associated with both psychological distress and perceived stress. These results held even after controlling for neuroticism. I did not, however, find that the interaction of race and gender attributions amplified the relationship. I discuss implications for future research and practical implications for practitioners

Violence in South African adolescents:a road to recovery

South African adolescents are at risk for exposure to violence victimisation and a significant proportion of them engage in violence perpetration. The experiences of victimisation and perpetration can take a significant toll on adolescents’ psycho-social development and lead to long-term impact on health and functioning in adulthood. Given the pressing situation of violence in South Africa and the importance to promote positive functioning in adolescents so they grow up to be responsible individuals and drive the country’s socio-economic development, a needs assessment was conducted. Specifically, quantitative methods were used to examine the risk and protective factors associated with adolescents’ experiences of victimisation and perpetration, as well as the negative impact of victimisation on adolescents’ psychological functioning and health risk behaviours. Moreover, qualitative methods were used to explore the protective factors that enhance resilience in adolescents living in high-violence communities. The results may inform the development of interventions to prevent the experiences of victimisation and perpetration in South African adolescents, and help them thrive and attain positive developmental outcomes

Development of a Student Bullying Scale Using the Rasch Model

Student bullying scales have been developed based on Western cultures, however these are not necessarily applicable to non-Western cultures, and there is a need for a scale to measure bullying behaviours that is adaptable to individual national cultures. This would not only be useful for students undergoing bullying, but also useful from the perpetrator’s side. The Rasch model can be used in this fashion, and this study seeks to develop a student bullying scale by applying the psychometric properties of the Rasch model. The dimensions of the bullying scale consisted of power imbalance, intent to harm, and cyberbullying, and the bullying indicators are defined as verbal, physical, visual, and relational. A total of 1200 public junior high school students in Bogor Regency took part in the study divided of 500 students in phase 1 and 700 students in phase II. The study concludes that the proposed instrument to evaluate bullying has significant validity and reliability in both phase 1 and phase 2. Keywords: rasch model, bullying scale, validity and reliabilt

Estimating nonresponse bias and mode effects in a mixed mode survey

In mixed-mode surveys, it is difficult to separate sample selection differences from mode-effects that can occur when respondents respond in different interview settings. This paper provides a framework for separating mode-effects from selection effects by matching very similar respondents from different survey modes using propensity score matching. The answer patterns of the matched respondents are subsequently compared. We show that matching can explain differences in nonresponse and coverage in two Internet-samples. When we repeat this procedure for a telephone and Internet-sample however, differences persist between the samples after matching. This indicates the occurrence of mode-effects in telephone and Internet surveys. Mode-effects can be problematic; hence we conclude with a discussion of designs that can be used to explicitly study mode-effects

Resilient victims of school bullying : psychosocial correlates of positive outcomes

Bullying is a phenomenon that has serious psychological consequences for victims, including low psychological wellbeing, poor social adjustment, psychological distress, and physical illness. Bullying has become a topic of increasing public concern and the focus of considerable research in Australia over the last decade. Parallel to this rise in interest in bullying research is a rise in research into resilience. Research has indicated that children facing distress will show a range of responses; some will regress, while others tolerate and even thrive in the face of trauma; it is this second group that are described as resilient. It was therefore postulated in this thesis that individuals exposed to bullying may not all succumb to the typical negative effects of being a victim of school bullying. While previous studies have noted the difference in reactions to bullying, this is the first study to investigate whether resilient victims can be identified, and their key psychosocial characteristics profiled. Based on this notion, it was predicted that victims of bullying could be taught a set of skills and attitudes that would build their resilience to the expected effects of bullying. The present research consisted of two studies. Study 1 had two phases. The first phase of Study 1 identified 'resilient victims' of school bullying by assessing participants on their levels of victimisation and their levels of wellbeing using a battery of questionnaires. Participants were assigned to one of four groups: resilient victims, non-resilient victims, healthy non-victims, or poor-health non-victims. From the original sample of 867 students, 111 were categorised into one of the four groups, and completed a second questionnaire package. The second phase examined the relationships between these resilience groups and eight psychosocial correlates of general resilience: individual protective factors, optimism, coping, social support, social skills, self-esteem, self-concept, and emotional intelligence. The results showed that there were significant discriminators between resilient and non-resilient victims, particularly on factors such as optimism, productive coping, self-concept and self-esteem, and so cial variables. The aims of the second study were to 1) develop a cognitive-behavioural group intervention program to teach social skills, perceived social support, self-esteem, optimism, and effective coping skills, to adolescent victims of school bullying; and 2) to investigate the effectiveness of the intervention. Ten year 7 and 8 students who reported negative consequences to high levels of bullying participated in the intervention program. Results indicated that the program had positive effects on the skills and attitudes that the program targeted. The program also appeared to have positive effects on the participants' levels of victimisation and general wellbeing

The epidemiology of trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder in a representative cohort of young people in England and Wales

BACKGROUND: Despite the emphasis placed on childhood trauma in psychiatry, comparatively little is known about the epidemiology of trauma and trauma-related psychopathology in young people. We therefore aimed to evaluate the prevalence, clinical features, and risk factors associated with trauma exposure and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in young people. METHODS: We carried out a comprehensive epidemiological study based on participants from the Environmental Risk Longitudinal Twin Study, a population-representative birth-cohort of 2232 children born in England and Wales in 1994-95. At the follow-up home visit at age 18 years, participants were assessed with structured interviews for trauma exposure, PTSD, other psychopathology, risk events, functional impairment, and service use. Risk factors for PTSD were measured prospectively over four previous assessments between age 5 and 12 years. The key outcomes were the prevalence, clinical features, and risk factors associated with trauma exposure and PTSD. We also derived and tested the internal validity of a PTSD risk calculator. FINDINGS: We found that 642 (31·1%) of 2064 participants reported trauma exposure and 160 (7·8%) of 2063 experienced PTSD by age 18 years. Trauma-exposed participants had high rates of psychopathology (187 [29·2%] of 641 for major depressive episode, 146 [22·9%] of 638 for conduct disorder, and 102 [15·9%] of 641 for alcohol dependence), risk events (160 [25·0%] of 641 for self-harm, 53 [8·3%] of 640 for suicide attempt, and 42 [6·6%] of 640 for violent offence), and functional impairment. Participants with lifetime PTSD had even higher rates of psychopathology (87 [54·7%] of 159 for major depressive episode, 43 [27·0%] of 159 for conduct disorder, and 41 [25·6%] of 160 for alcohol dependence), risk events (78 [48·8%] of 160 for self-harm, 32 [20·1%] of 159 for suicide attempt, and 19 [11·9%] of 159 for violent offence), and functional impairment. However, only 33 (20·6%) of 160 participants with PTSD received help from mental health professionals. The PTSD risk calculator had an internally validated area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0·74, indicating adequate discrimination of trauma-exposed participants with and without PTSD, and internally validated calibration-in-the-large of -0·10 and calibration slope of 0·90, indicating adequate calibration. INTERPRETATION: Trauma exposure and PTSD are associated with complex psychiatric presentations, high risk, and significant impairment in young people. Improved screening, reduced barriers to care provision, and comprehensive clinical assessment are needed to ensure that trauma-exposed young people and those with PTSD receive appropriate treatment

The role of cognitive appraisals in the relationship between peer-victimisation and poor mental health

Over 40-years of research has highlighted the prevalence of peer victimisation, and the impact experiencing this behaviour can have on adolescents’ mental health. Underpinned by the transactional model of stress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) and the socio-ecological model (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Espelage & Swearer, 2003), the aim of this thesis was to examine the role of cognitive appraisals in the relationship between peer-victimisation and poor mental health. Three studies were undertaken: a systematic review of extant literature; the secondary data analysis of a cross-sectional study of 3,737 pupils examining the role of domain-specific perceived social support in the relationship between bullying, cyberbullying and poor mental health; and a longitudinal study of 530 adolescents aged 11 to 14 examining the role of cognitive appraisals in the relationship between peer-victimisation and symptomatology. The results of the systematic review highlighted an inconsistent pattern of findings regarding the role of perceived social support. Both the cross sectional and longitudinal study found that perceived social support from parents/guardians, teachers, and friends did not significantly moderate the relationship between peer-victimisation and poor mental health. The results of the systematic review also highlighted a role for threat and control cognitive appraisals in this relationship. Cognitive appraisals of threat, challenge, control and blame were examined in the longitudinal study. Results of this study found a small but significant total indirect effect for threat and challenge appraisals in the development of depressive symptomatology. This study is the first to report a role for challenge appraisals in adolescents’ adaptations to peer-victimisation. The findings of this thesis highlight the utility of the transactional model of stress and socio-ecological model for researching the relationship between peer-victimisation and poor mental health.Over 40-years of research has highlighted the prevalence of peer victimisation, and the impact experiencing this behaviour can have on adolescents’ mental health. Underpinned by the transactional model of stress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) and the socio-ecological model (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Espelage & Swearer, 2003), the aim of this thesis was to examine the role of cognitive appraisals in the relationship between peer-victimisation and poor mental health. Three studies were undertaken: a systematic review of extant literature; the secondary data analysis of a cross-sectional study of 3,737 pupils examining the role of domain-specific perceived social support in the relationship between bullying, cyberbullying and poor mental health; and a longitudinal study of 530 adolescents aged 11 to 14 examining the role of cognitive appraisals in the relationship between peer-victimisation and symptomatology. The results of the systematic review highlighted an inconsistent pattern of findings regarding the role of perceived social support. Both the cross sectional and longitudinal study found that perceived social support from parents/guardians, teachers, and friends did not significantly moderate the relationship between peer-victimisation and poor mental health. The results of the systematic review also highlighted a role for threat and control cognitive appraisals in this relationship. Cognitive appraisals of threat, challenge, control and blame were examined in the longitudinal study. Results of this study found a small but significant total indirect effect for threat and challenge appraisals in the development of depressive symptomatology. This study is the first to report a role for challenge appraisals in adolescents’ adaptations to peer-victimisation. The findings of this thesis highlight the utility of the transactional model of stress and socio-ecological model for researching the relationship between peer-victimisation and poor mental health

Resource Intensity for Children and Youth: The Development of an Algorithm to Identify High Service Users in Children’s Mental Health

Children’s mental health care plays a vital role in many social, health care, and education systems, but there is evidence that appropriate targeting strategies are needed to allocate limited mental health care resources effectively. The aim of this study was to develop and validate a methodology for identifying children who require access to more intense facility-based or community resources. Ontario data based on the interRAI Child and Youth Mental Health instruments were analysed to identify predictors of service complexity in children’s mental health. The Resource Intensity for Children and Youth (RIChY) algorithm was a good predictor of service complexity in the derivation sample. The algorithm was validated with additional data from 61 agencies. The RIChY algorithm provides a psychometrically sound decision-support tool that may be used to inform the choices related to allocation of children’s mental health resources and prioritisation of clients needing community- and facility-based resources