Effects of Visual and Acoustic Distraction on Driving Behavior and EEG in Young and Older Car Drivers: A Driving Simulation Study

Driving safety depends on the drivers’ attentional focus on the driving task. Especially in complex situations, distraction due to secondary stimuli can impair driving performance. The inhibition of distractors or inadequate prepotent responses to irrelevant stimuli requires cognitive control, which is assumed to be reduced with increasing age. The present EEG study investigated the effects of secondary acoustic and visual stimuli on driving performance of younger and older car drivers in a driving simulator task. The participants had to respond to brake lights of a preceding car under different distraction conditions and with varying task difficulties. Overall, the anticipation of high demanding tasks affected braking response behavior in young and especially in older adults, who showed reduced cognitive control to task-relevant braking stimuli, as reflected by a smaller P3b. In a more easy (perception only) task, simultaneously presented acoustic stimuli accelerated braking response times (RTs) in young and older adults, which was associated with a pronounced P2. In contrast, secondary visual stimuli increased braking RTs in older adults, associated with a reduced P3b. In a more difficult (discrimination) task, braking response behavior was impaired by the presence of secondary acoustic and visual stimuli in young and older drivers. Braking RT increased (and the P3b decreased), especially when the responses to the secondary stimuli had to be suppressed. This negative effect was more pronounced with visual secondary stimuli, and especially so in the older group. In sum, the results suggest an impaired resistance to distractor interference and a reduced inhibition of prepotent responses in older drivers. This was most pronounced when the processing of task-relevant and irrelevant stimuli engage the same mental resources, for example, by sharing the same stimulus modality

Behavioral conservatism is linked to complexity of behavior in chimpanzees (<i>Pan troglodytes</i>):implications for cognition and cumulative culture

Cumulative culture is rare, if not altogether absent in nonhuman species. At the foundation of cumulative learning is the ability to modify, relinquish, or build upon previous behaviors flexibly to make them more productive or efficient. Within the primate literature, a failure to optimize solutions in this way is often proposed to derive from low-fidelity copying of witnessed behaviors, suboptimal social learning heuristics, or a lack of relevant sociocognitive adaptations. However, humans can also be markedly inflexible in their behaviors, perseverating with, or becoming fixated on, outdated or inappropriate responses. Humans show differential patterns of flexibility as a function of cognitive load, exhibiting difficulties with inhibiting suboptimal behaviors when there are high demands on working memory. We present a series of studies on captive chimpanzees that indicate that behavioral conservatism in apes may be underlain by similar constraints: Chimpanzees showed relatively little conservatism when behavioral optimization involved the inhibition of a well-established but simple solution, or the addition of a simple modification to a well-established but complex solution. In contrast, when behavioral optimization involved the inhibition of a well-established but complex solution, chimpanzees showed evidence of conservatism. We propose that conservatism is linked to behavioral complexity, potentially mediated by cognitive resource availability, and may be an important factor in the evolution of cumulative culture.</p

To Play or Not to Play: An Investigation Into The Effect of Video Game Use on Executive Functions

Findings in experimental psychology research suggest that individuals who engage in video game play outperform those who do not play video games on a range of cognitions, in particular visual selective attention. It was predicted that the source of the differences observed in video game players (VGP) compared to non-video game players (NVGP) is the result of additional executive function resources. Findings suggest that only when the task is sufficiently demanding are the additional attentional and executive function resources in VGP observable compared to NVGP. Across three experimental paradigms, the executive functions of VGP were compared to those of NVGP. In Experiments One and Two, a hybrid response inhibition task was used to assess the response inhibition performance in the subcomponents of action cancellation, action withholding, and interference resolution in VGP compared to NVGP. In Experiment Two, measures of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), glutamate, and glutamine were recorded using magnetic resonance spectroscopy. In Experiment One, VGP significantly outperformed NVGP in measures of action cancellation and interference resolution, but the HRIT failed to measure action withholding. In Experiment Two, the results of Experiment One were not replicated, and there was no significant difference between VGP and NVGP in the subcomponents of response inhibition. A combined analysis of participants in Experiments One and Two replicated the effects observed in Experiment One, VGP outperformed NVGP on measures of interference resolution and action withholding. In Experiment Three, the ability to sustain attention was assessed using a continuous performance task with manipulations of cognitive load. The aim was to elucidate the inconsistent results observed in Experiments One and Two by manipulating cognitive load to allow observation of the increased executive function resources in VGP. The results of Experiment Three showed no significant difference between VGP and NVGP in metrics of sustained attention performance. Moreover, there was no difference between groups in their ability to sustain attention regardless of cognitive load. This thesis emphasises the potential for video game use to train and improve executive function capabilities, but that findings and directions for future research are constrained by methodological and theoretical limitations

Optimising the training-induced changes of inhibitory control

In four studies, this thesis examined the effect of task difficulty and brief training on inhibitory processing in the Go/Nogo task, and transfer to the Stop-signal and Eriksenflanker tasks. It also aimed to clarify how the event-related potential (ERP) of the N2 and P3, as well as the earlier N1 and P2 components, reflect training-related modulations in the underlying neural processes. This was achieved by (1) the use of three task difficulty levels (Low, Medium, High) using incremental reaction time deadlines (RTDs), (2) the effect of these three RTDs on task performance and the early (N1, P2) and inhibition-related (N2, P3) ERP components after brief training, (3) the use of another form of task difficulty – stimulus prepotency – to investigate whether training effects may be enhanced, and (4) the use of single Go/Nogo training (planned inhibition) vs. combined training of Go/Nogo (planned inhibition) and Stop-signal (action cancellation) inhibition. The main results were that the Nogo N2 effect was robustly observed to increase with greater task difficulty (i.e. RTDs), but that it reduced irrespective with time-on-task or training condition. It does not appear to reflect neural processing related to motor or pre-motor inhibition, but may instead represent the detection of conflict between responses. The Nogo P3, however, behaved in a fashion consistent with an inhibitory interpretation, being reduced with greater task difficulty (concurrent with lower levels of task performance), but showing increased amplitudes over frontal brain regions with training and improved task performance – an effect that showed near-transfer to an untrained Stop-signal task. Reduced N1, but enhanced P2 amplitudes, occurred regardless of training condition, indicating a generalised change in sensory processing with repeated task administration. The results cast doubt on the current inhibitory interpretation of the N2. Instead they suggest that, not only does the amplitude of the frontocentral Nogo P3 represent neural processing related to inhibitory control, but that it shows clear training-induced quantitative changes coinciding with performance improvements - furthering both the theoretical and applied knowledge of the key task parameters required to effectively train inhibitory control

Exploring the Aetiology and Effects of Pharmacological Cognitive Enhancement use in UK University Students.

Media claims suggest that use of pharmacological cognitive enhancers (PCE) in UK universities is significant and is increasing, though academic research has come to less consistent conclusions. While there has been expansion of research in this area, the public health impact of long-term PCE use, including the potential for adverse effects to cognitive, neurological and physiological functioning remains unclear. Consequently, this thesis aimed to investigate the aetiology and long-term effects of PCE use in some UK universities. Study 1 aimed to investigate CE use in four UK universities, including: which substances are commonly used, the reasons for use and which factors relate to consumption. Here, caffeinated products were the most popular, followed by modafinil. Furthermore, several sociodemographic and personality variables were part of a statistical model to predict CE use, although only gender, age and moral perceptions of modafinil use were found to be significant. Study 2 focussed on modafinil as the most popular PCE aiming to assess the long-term impact (> 3 months) of use on executive functioning by administering various cognitive performance measures. Despite no behavioural differences on the 2-back (working memory) and the continuous performance task (sustained attention), modafinil users responded to both horizontal and vertical cues more quickly than nonusers on the cued go/no-go task (inhibitory control) without experiencing an accuracy trade-off or performance decrement. To investigate the neural substrates of any potential cognitive deficits, Study 3 assessed cognitive and neurophysiological processes by using functional near-infrared spectroscopy, electrocardiogram and a digital sphygmomanometer alongside cognitive performance measures designed to increase cognitive workload. It was found that there were no behavioural performance differences on easy and difficult variants of the multitasking framework (stressor) or 3-back (working memory) between groups, but users experienced significantly lower systolic blood pressure across the tasks and greater haemodynamic change during the 3-back. Blood pressure indicated that users appeared 11 | P a g e less physiologically aroused during performance measures, but increased haemodynamic response compared with controls revealed possible underlying cognitive deficits. Taken as a whole, modafinil appears to be the most popular PCE in the UK for university students, and long-term use unexpectedly revealed enhanced inhibitory control but possible deficits to working memory performance. This research consolidates previous claims about modafinil as the most popular PCE among UK university students. Furthermore, this is the first study to investigate long-term modafinil use and establish behavioural and neurophysiological differences with nonusers

Neurobiological mechanisms of control in alcohol use disorder – Moving towards mechanism-based non-invasive brain stimulation treatments

Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is characterized by excessive habitual drinking and loss of control over alcohol intake despite negative consequences. Both of these aspects foster uncontrolled drinking and high relapse rates in AUD patients. Yet, common interventions mostly focus on the phenomenological level, and prioritize the reduction of craving and withdrawal symptoms. Our review provides a mechanistic understanding of AUD and suggests alternative therapeutic approaches targeting the mechanisms underlying dysfunctional alcohol-related behaviours. Specifically, we explain how repeated drinking fosters the development of rigid drinking habits and is associated with diminished cognitive control. These behavioural and cognitive effects are then functionally related to the neurobiochemical effects of alcohol abuse. We further explain how alterations in fronto-striatal network activity may constitute the neurobiological correlates of these alcohol-related dysfunctions. Finally, we discuss limitations in current pharmacological AUD therapies and suggest non-invasive brain stimulation (like TMS and tDCS interventions) as a potential addition/alternative for modulating the activation of both cortical and subcortical areas to help re-establish the functional balance between controlled and automatic behaviour

Drive at the rhythm of your own heart: a study on Heart Rate Variability, cognitive functioning and driving performance in Ferrari Driving Academy drivers

openRacing driving requires the development of extraordinary sensorimotor skills to deliver high-level peak performances in complex environments characterised by multiple stressors, draining drivers’ physiological and cognitive resources. Although previous research provided evidence in favour of the role played by the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) and different cognitive and executive functions in supporting the delivery of a high-level driving performance, further research is needed to deepen our understanding of the exact mechanisms linking physiological and psychological resources to the behavioural outcomes of driving. We adopted an evidence-based theoretical model (i.e., the Neurovisceral Integration Perspective; Thayer and Lane, 2000; Thayer et al., 2009; Thayer et al., 2012) and validated techniques and tools, to investigate, in a sample of elite racing drivers mainly scouted for the Ferrari Driver Academy, the relationship between HRV parameters, indexing the individual availability of physiological resources, and a set of measures of cognitive functions thought to be relevant for driving, including non-executive (simple reaction times) and executive (inhibitory control and WM) ones. We also tried to elucidate whether and how these physiological and cognitive variables can be used to predict driving performance, measured using a very ecological task in a realistic driving simulator. Based on previous research, we hypothesised that: (a) time-domain HRV indices of parasympathetic cardiac control would be positively associated with measures of inhibitory control (i.e., the performance at a Go/NoGo task) and WM (i.e., the performance at an N-Back task), but not with those of general readiness (i.e., the performance at an SRT task); (b) that driving performance (as indexed by the best and average lap times recorded) would be predicted by HRV indices, as well as by measures of inhibitory control. The results showed a significant negative correlation between cardiorespiratory coherence and the percentage of commissions at the Go/NoGo task, a negative correlation between coherence and the lap times recorded by the drivers, and a positive correlation between the latter and the mean reaction times (RTs) at the Go trials of the Go/NoGo task. Finally, linear models including coherence, the percentage of commissions at Go/NoGo and the mean RTs at Go trials as independent variables, proved to be able to explain a significant amount of variance in driving performance. Our results replicated some findings previously reported in psychophysiology, cognitive psychology, neuropsychology and sport psychology, extending them to the field of motorsport, and provided further support to the Neurovisceral Integration Perspective. Finally, the linear models developed proved to be able to explain a significant amount of variability in peak driving performance in elite racing drivers, providing a useful tool for their assessment and scouting, as well as for future studies in the field.Racing driving requires the development of extraordinary sensorimotor skills to deliver high-level peak performances in complex environments characterised by multiple stressors, draining drivers’ physiological and cognitive resources. Although previous research provided evidence in favour of the role played by the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) and different cognitive and executive functions in supporting the delivery of a high-level driving performance, further research is needed to deepen our understanding of the exact mechanisms linking physiological and psychological resources to the behavioural outcomes of driving. We adopted an evidence-based theoretical model (i.e., the Neurovisceral Integration Perspective; Thayer and Lane, 2000; Thayer et al., 2009; Thayer et al., 2012) and validated techniques and tools, to investigate, in a sample of elite racing drivers mainly scouted for the Ferrari Driver Academy, the relationship between HRV parameters, indexing the individual availability of physiological resources, and a set of measures of cognitive functions thought to be relevant for driving, including non-executive (simple reaction times) and executive (inhibitory control and WM) ones. We also tried to elucidate whether and how these physiological and cognitive variables can be used to predict driving performance, measured using a very ecological task in a realistic driving simulator. Based on previous research, we hypothesised that: (a) time-domain HRV indices of parasympathetic cardiac control would be positively associated with measures of inhibitory control (i.e., the performance at a Go/NoGo task) and WM (i.e., the performance at an N-Back task), but not with those of general readiness (i.e., the performance at an SRT task); (b) that driving performance (as indexed by the best and average lap times recorded) would be predicted by HRV indices, as well as by measures of inhibitory control. The results showed a significant negative correlation between cardiorespiratory coherence and the percentage of commissions at the Go/NoGo task, a negative correlation between coherence and the lap times recorded by the drivers, and a positive correlation between the latter and the mean reaction times (RTs) at the Go trials of the Go/NoGo task. Finally, linear models including coherence, the percentage of commissions at Go/NoGo and the mean RTs at Go trials as independent variables, proved to be able to explain a significant amount of variance in driving performance. Our results replicated some findings previously reported in psychophysiology, cognitive psychology, neuropsychology and sport psychology, extending them to the field of motorsport, and provided further support to the Neurovisceral Integration Perspective. Finally, the linear models developed proved to be able to explain a significant amount of variability in peak driving performance in elite racing drivers, providing a useful tool for their assessment and scouting, as well as for future studies in the field

Can High-Quality Jobs Help Workers Learn New Tricks? A Multi-Disciplinary Review of Work Design For Cognition

Understanding whether and how work design affects human cognition is important because: (1) cognition is necessary for job performance, (2) digital technologies increase the need for cognition, and (3) it is vital to maintain cognitive functioning in the mature workforce. We synthesize research from work design, human factors, learning, occupational health, and lifespan perspectives. Defining cognition in terms of both knowledge and cognitive processes/fluid abilities, we show that five types of work characteristics (job complexity, job autonomy, relational work design, job feedback, and psychosocial demands) affect employees’ cognition via multiple pathways. In the short-to-medium term, we identify three cognitively-enriching pathways (opportunity for use of cognition, accelerated knowledge acquisition, motivated exploratory learning) and two cognitively-harmful pathways (strain-impaired cognition, depleted cognitive capacity). We also identify three longer-term pathways: cognitive preservation, accumulated knowledge, and ill-health impairment). Based on the emerging evidence for the role of work design in promoting cognition, we propose an integrative model suggesting that short-to-medium term processes between work design and cognition accumulate to affect longer-term cognitive outcomes, such as the prevention of cognitive decline as one ages. We also identify further directions for research and methodological improvements

Application of auditory stimuli with movement cue in Ecuadorian patients with severe and acute left-sidedneglect, 2020

Hemispatial neglect is a deeply disabling neurological syndrome, which occurs due to a unilateral injury of the parietal lobe and affects the ability to pay attention to the contralesional side of the space. This deficit, in turn, causes many complications in carrying out activities of daily living and represents a huge challenge for those affected by it. For that reason, the development of new types of rehabilitation tools and strategies is of utmost importance to contribute to the improvement of neglect patient’s lifestyles...La negligencia hemiespacial es un síndrome neurológico profundamente incapacitante, que se produce debido a una lesión unilateral en el lóbulo parietal, y que afecta a la habilidad de prestar atención al lado contralesional del espacio. Este déficit, a su vez, causa muchas complicaciones para ejecutar actividades de la vida diaria y representa un enorme desafío para los pacientes que se ven afectados por este. Por esa razón, el desarrollo de nuevos tipos de herramientas y estrategias de rehabilitación es de suma importancia para contribuir a la mejora de los estilos de vida de los pacientes con un diagnóstico de negligencia hemiespacial..