Linking Land and Water Resource Management in Southern Thailand: Viewing Sustainable Resource Solutions Through a Double Lens

Global demands for water continue to rise while at the same time, the availability of reliable water resources are deteriorating. As 70% of the world’s human consumption of water resources is directed towards agricultural production, the need to improve water use efficiency and sustainability in these areas is of utmost importance. In order to tackle these issues, the concept of “Integrated water resource management” (IWRM) has been developed and is currently the most globally accepted and widely implemented strategy for attaining equitable, efficient and sustainable water management. Due to the extensive adoption of IWRM, the need to examine the successes and challenges of this strategy is warranted. This case study, which is set in an agricultural river basin in southern Thailand, will address the question of how government policies in Thailand encouraging palm oil production are influencing the ability of rural communities to effectively manage their water resources. While the Thai government has formally embraced IWRM, its effectiveness in coordinating land and water resource management in the nation across all levels of government is still in question. For many cases of IWRM, one of the most significant obstacles facing practitioners is that of developing full and effective stakeholder engagement. Although this term has been understood as a vital component for IWRM success, the disconnection between ‘ground-up’ local community resource management efforts and ‘top-down’ higher level governmental policies still persist. Through the analysis of this case using Institutional Theory and in particular, the “Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD) Framework”, the results of this study demonstrate that efforts to enhance stakeholder engagement could benefit from a deeper understanding of the local level institutional processes that are at the core of rurally based natural resource management strategies

COASTAL GUARDIANS AND PRECARIOUS LIVELIHOODS: THE POLITICAL ECOLOGY OF MANGROVE NARRATIVES

Ph.D

Effects of climate change on agriculture water demand in lower Pak Phanang river basin, southern part of Thailand

The aim of the research is to analyse the effects on agricultural water demand in the Lower Pak Phanang River Basin area due to climate change. The climate data used in the analysis were rainfall, maximum, minimum, and average temperatures. The climate datasets were obtained from statistical downscaling of global circulation model under the CMIP5 project by means of bias correction with Optimizing Quantile Mapping implemented by the Hydro and Agro Informatics Institute. To determine agriculture water demand, reference evapotranspiration (ETo) based on Hargreaves method was calculated for both baseline climate data (1987-2015) and forecasted climate data in 2038. For agriculture water demand in the Pak Phanang river basin, we considered paddy field, palm oil, rubber, grapefruit, orchard, vegetable, ruzy and biennial crop, based on land use data of the Land Development Department of Thailand in 2012. The results showed that forecasted agriculture water demand in 2038 with existing land use data in 2012 will be increased with the average of 18.9% or 61.78 MCM as compared to baseline climate condition. Both water demand and supply management measures would be suitably prepared before facing unexpected situation

Adapting fisheries-based livelihoods to hydrological changes in the Lower Mekong River Basin : a case study of Lao PDR

Nam Theun 2 hydropower dam was selected for this study to assess how local communities respond to hydrological changes and examine the impacts of these changes to ecology and livelihoods of people around the Nakai reservoir and downstream in the Xe Bang Fai River. The results confirmed that fish and Other Aquatic Animals (OAAs) are essential sources of food and income generation of both reservoir and downstream Xe Bang Fai River households. People living around the reservoir and river consume fish and OAAs almost every meal. Fish and OAAs account for 62% (54% in reservoir and 70% in river) of animal protein intake. Reservoir households, which have limited land and poor soil for rice cultivation, rely on the reservoir fishery not just for subsistence but also for generating income to buy rice for consumption. By contrast, the households living further downstream along the Xe Bang Fai River are likely to own more land and fertile soil for agriculture, and the artisanal fisheries are mainly for consumption, but they also sell part of their catch when they have excess or during the high fishing season at the start of the wet season.The results from the study indicate that the impacts of trans-basin hydropower dams on the ecological functioning and livelihoods of people are significant. The impacts from climate change in the study areas and elsewhere are minor in comparison with the impacts from mainstream and tributary dams. Nam Theun 2 dam has changed the hydrological regime of the Xe Bang Fai River, destroyed the riverbed and disrupted dry season refuge habitats. Many high value species that initially resided in the reservoir have disappeared and are replaced by small and carnivorous species such as Channa striata , as well as alien species such as Oreochromis niloticus and Cyprinus carpio. However, it is unclear whether the species composition in downstream areas has changed because fishers are still learning to adapt to high and strong flows or many fishers have shifted to fish in small streams and swamps as they are concerned about safety issues.Fishers in the reservoir have adapted to the new environment and lifestyle by diversifying their income sources, by opening small village shops, trading and labouring to supplement their income from reservoir fishing. The downstream fishers have more opportunities and more diverse livelihood activities to cope with the hydrological changes and adverse weather. Although rice farming is the most important activity for the downstream villages, most of their immediate cash comes from livestock, in particular large ruminants that provide their main sources of income. However, they also sell some of their daily catch to help purchase foods and maintain food security. The study highlights the need to provide financial and technical assistance for the affected households; to assist them starting new alternative livelihood activities aiming to supplement the declining fish catches in the reservoir and river. These livelihood activities include ecotourism and services, cultivating organic vegetable, working in clothes and agricultural processing factories, promoting One District One Product, and aquaculture.The promotion of reservoir fisheries as an alternative livelihood may be good in the short term, but for the long term and sustainable use of fishery resources, there is a need to look for other options outside fisheries and balance between the need for food security and protection of fisheries resources for future generations. Although the reservoir fishery can support production it requires more investment, thus it is necessary to protect habitat in small streams and rivers in the headwaters of the reservoir to ensure fish can use these habitats for spawning. In the river, critical habitats, such as deep pools and floodplains vital to the Mekong fisheries need protection. Maintaining connectivity between the mainstream and floodplains is also necessary, allowing fish free access to spawning, nursery, feeding and refuge habitats to complete their lifecycles. These protections can be instigated at different scales, such as local, national and regional levels, with participation from local communities and institutions concerned with the fisheries. At the regional level, it could be achieved through the trans-boundary fisheries management framework being developed by the Mekong River Commission

Wetlands governance in the Mekong Region: country reports on the legal-institutional framework and economic valuation of aquatic resources

Wetlands are central to the livelihoods of rural communities through out the Mekong Region, providing vital functions and services that support the rural economy, ensure food security for the most vulnerable membrs of society, and underpin the prospects for national development. Proper appreciation of the importance of wetlands has been hampered by inadequate information and awareness of their uses, particularly among development planners, as well as legal and institutional frameworks that are often fragmented and poorly enforced. Wetlands are consistently undervalued and overlooked as a result, and ultimately, it is the rural poor who lose out.Wetlands-Economic aspects, Wetlands-Law and legislation, Socioeconomic aspects, Aquatic resources, WorldFish Center Contrib. No. 1754, Mekong Delta, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Lao PDR,

Local perceptions of environmental change in a tropical coastal wetland: The case of Koggala Lagoon, Galle, Sri Lanka.

Tropical coastal wetlands are under ecological stress, most notably due to accelerated development activities associated with these areas. Consequently, natural resource depletion and environmental problems in the coastal sector are increasingly serious issues, particularly in South and South East Asia, and have significant implications for their traditional resource-user groups. This thesis is primarily based on a detailed investigation of the inter-relationships between environmental change and local perception of change at Koggala, Galle, southern Sri Lanka, where six sample Divisions bordering Koggala Lagoon were selected for in-depth study. Multi-disciplinary techniques from both the natural and the social sciences were employed, focusing on the environmental changes involved and on the perceptions of these changes by local fishing and farming communities. Particular attention was paid to changes in agriculture, to the reconfiguration of a coastal sand bar, and to the development of a Free Trade Zone. Participatory techniques involved the experimental use of group discussions. Visits were made to Malaysia and Thailand for comparative study purposes. Results show that the fringing mangrove complex is currently threatened by a number of factors and that sand mining close to the lagoon outlet has severely disrupted water levels in the lagoon and ultimately rice-farming systems. The fishing community further perceives significant declines in their fish catch, attributing this to the loss of fishery nursery sites and to the seepage of agro-chemicals, some belonging to highly toxic groups, into the lagoon. It is clear that local communities display a high degree of awareness of environmental change, as well as of the causes of this change. Such understanding can be used to develop local-level adaptive planning for wetland management. The use of discussion groups is seen as a novel approach to such wetland management programmes in the tropics

The coastal environmental profile of Ban Don Bay and Phangnga Bay, Thailand

Environmental profile, Coastal zone management, Coastal zone, Ban Don Bay, Phangnga Bay, Thailand, Environmental Economics and Policy,

Whose nature counts in natural resource management? A study of a wetland fishery in southern Thailand

SIGLEAvailable from British Library Document Supply Centre-DSC:DXN017050 / BLDSC - British Library Document Supply CentreGBUnited Kingdo

Management of watergate to enhance fisheries in the Nam Kam River system, Thailand

The impact of watergate operation on hydrology and habitat, and their effects on fish migration, fish diversity, population structure, and recruitment of fisheries resources were studied in the Nam Kam River system, a tributary of the Mekong in Thailand. The factors that influence the migration of fish were identified and the effectiveness of fish passage facilities installed at watergates in the river system were investigated.The flow regime and flood cycle were modified by watergate operation, which is designed to control floods in the wet season and retain water for irrigation in the dry season. Fluctuations in flow and water level were created and varied along the river in the wet season. Timing, frequency and duration of floods in each habitat down the river were altered. Operations for irrigation removed low flows and created longer periods of no flow in the dry season. The river becomes stagnant and water levels in the floodplains above the watergates are higher than pre-construction. Many new nursery and feeding habitats were created after construction, but water abstraction also disconnected the floodplain below the watergate and the mainstem river. Flow modification driven by watergate operation for flood control is likely to delay water level rise at the onset of the flood in the downstream area that trigger upstream migration of fish into the Nam Kam River system, especially pangasids. The watergate operation limits the upstream migration of adult fish at the onset of the flood season and inhibits the upstream migration of late migrating species, the downstream migration of fish, and drifting of eggs, larval and juvenile fish since all sluice gates were closed at the end of the flood season. Longitudinal migrating species are more likely to be impacted than lateral migrating species and this will impact on the overall population structure of fishes.Several longitudinal migratory white fish species, main channel residents and main channel spawners declined in abundance or were absent in the upstream area above Thoranit Naruemit Watergate and it most likely resulted from hydrological alteration driven by watergate operation. Fish larvae and juvenile fish in this river system were dominated by resident grey and black fish, while recruitment of white fish species was limited as watergate operation obstructs the upstream migration of adult fish during the spawning season. Diversity of fish in the river decreased from downstream to upstream area, it shows a negative relationship with number of barriers. The relative abundance of white fish was significantly different between the floodplain above and below Thoranit Naruemit watergate during the study period. Seasonal distribution of fish in the Nam Kam River system is different from the free-flowing Songkhram River. At the end of flood season, diversity of fish in the regulated river was high since larvae and juvenile fish and many white and grey fish species are stranded in the floodplain above the watergate after sluice gates were completely closed. These fish have subsequently adapted to feed and grow in the poor habitat conditions during the dry season. Genetic study of two target species, Hemibagrus nemurus and Osteochilus hasselti, indicates high genetic diversity and big population sizes maintained by gene flow from the downstream populations and nearby populations when the watergates are opened. Populations of the two target species in the most upstream lake, Nong Han, are contributed by migrating fish from Mekong River and resident populations with in the river system. Rate of migrations, small genetic distances and genetic differentiations between subpopulations of the target species support the occurrence of gene flow in this river; many subpopulations have little genetic differentiation between samples although there is the series of barriers in the river system. By chance, population size of the two migratory species migrating through the Thoranit Naruemit and Suraswadi fish passes were relatively big and bigger than populations along the river suggesting that upstream migration of target species is only partially limited by watergate operation. This is probably because the Nam Kam River is a rather short river and gene flow in the river system was supported by the operation schedule that fully open the watergates in flood season and the fish pass operation at the onset and the end of flood season. Thus, the most important things that need to be addressed to maintain fisheries resources in this river system are watergate and fish passage operations.Fish passage facilities in the Nam Kam support migration of more than 135 fish species and mitigate the impact of delayed watergate opening on the recruitment of fish in this river system. However, the operational schedule needs to be adjusted since fish can only use the fish passes when the sluice gates are closed or partially opened dring high river discharge in the wet season. Upstream migration is only completely unobstructed when the watergates are open to maximum capacity. The watergate and fish passes management schemes in the river system are key important factors to mitigate the impact on hydrological changes and habitat changes, to enable free movement of fish through the river system and enhance the fisheries in the Nam Kam River system. Recommendations for watergate and fish pass operation based on the integrated knowledge gained from this study are provided

Assessing availability of wetland ecosystem goods and services: a case study of the Blesbokspruit wetland in Springs, Gauteng province

A research report submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for a Masters Degree in Environmental Sciences, School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences. University of the Witwatersrand. Johannesburg, 2016.Wetland ecosystems cover approximately 6% of the Earth’s surface area and provide important ecosystems goods and services for the sustenance of human livelihoods. According to the Millennium Ecosystems Assessment, wetlands’ ecosystems goods and services cover the provisioning, regulating, support of biodiversity, and wider community cultural values. However, wetland ecosystems are threatened by human interference in combination with effects of climate change, both of which might compromise the functionality of these socio-ecological systems. The study used a combination of observations, interviews and remote sensing combined with GIS to investigate evidence of change and the possible effects on the Blesbokspruit wetland’s natural integrity, and thus availability of ecosystem goods and services in the wetland. Documented spatial changes in land uses were analysed to determine the extent to which land use and cover changes have affected the natural capital (i.e. ecosystem goods and services) for people. The interaction of local people with the wetland was assessed in order to establish how they use the wetland as a livelihood support system. The study found that people from the surrounding communities both in the upper (Putfontein) and lower catchments (Marievale) are interacting with the wetland in different ways. The provisioning services from the Blesbokspruit wetland to the surrounding communities include water used for both domestic and agricultural activities. Both subsistence and commercial farming are taking place along the wetland (crop farming and livestock rearing). The wetland is therefore providing a safety net to disadvantaged households who are able to supplement their food. The wetland is also able to regulate climate change (carbon sequestration and flood attenuation) and water quality due to the presence of vegetation. The wetland also supports high biodiversity (flora and fauna) such as within the Marievale Bird sanctuary. Recreational services of the wetland come from the scenic views noted at both Marievale (picnic spots) and Putfontein (evidenced by children playing and swimming). The integrity of the wetland is primarily threatened by population increase and urbanisation. Remote sensing analyses of land use/land cover patterns between 1998 and 2015 indicate that major changes of the wetland have been due to human encroachment. Subsistence agriculture in the wetland has increased, which fuels damage to the wetland. Direct observation and interviews with female farmers showed that they compete for plot size which is proportional to the respect one farmer earns in the community. Water quality of the wetland seemed to be compromised by industrial activities and use of fertilisers by farmers. Unlike the pristine upper part of the wetland at Putfontein, eutrophication downstream was evidenced by polluted water, algal blooms and change of water colour at Marievale – all suggesting loss of natural benefits such as high quality water. Despite the observed threats, it is concluded that the Blesbokspruit wetland ecosystem goods and services play a significant role in supporting the well-being and livelihoods of surrounding poor communities. It is suggested that activities threatening the wetland’s integrity may be managed effectively through community-based approaches for natural resource management. There is a need for all stakeholders to be equipped with proper conservation knowledge for them to appreciate the indirect (e.g. climate regulation and water quality control) as well as direct (agricultural and water provisioning) benefits of Blesbokspruit wetland. A better understanding of this socio-ecological system would benefit from comprehensive research on hydrological dynamics associated with agricultural practices within the catchment, and the development of an integrated model of natural resources management with a strong social component.LG201