"Interessi visivi" e strumenti della critica: Carte d'archivio per un profilo di Michael Baxandall

This thesis outlines a profile of Michael Baxandall (1933-2008) which highlights two main aspects of his work as an art historian and critique: the importance attached to the 'visual interest' of the works of art and the author's sustained reflection about critical methodology. Both these aspects are summarized in the title of the thesis. «Visual interests» refers to Baxandall's approach to the visual arts, which moves from an urgent close observation of the artefact to its moral relevance. «Critical tools» describes Baxandall's methodological reflection: declining the theoretical debate, the author focuses on a more fundamental set of practical problems concerning the activity of verbalising and conceptualising the visual interests of the works of art. Such features are revealed by the analysis of the Baxandall papers (The Papers of Micheal Baxandall (Department of Manuscripts and University Archives della University Library di Cambridge), on which the thesis is based. The collection, that has increased between 2009 and 2013, amounts to 134 folders arranged in eight series: (MS Add. 9843/1) Biographical; (MS Add. 9843/2) Appointments and Roles; (MS Add. 9843/3) Personal Correspondence; (MS Add. 9843/4) Lecture & Symposium Invitations; (MS Add. 9843/5) Lectures; (MS Add. 9843/6) Conferences and Symposiums; (MS Add. 9843/7) Publications; (MS Add. 9843/8) Research notes. The papers have been rearranged in a chronological order and then analysed within a biographical framework which has been reconstructed from the study of the biographical sources and the interviews dating to 1994, 1998, 1999 and 2008. The comparison between Baxandall's manuscripts and his edited works has revealed a vast quantity of research materials and draft papers devoted to lectures, conferences and publications, which have been studied. According to the chronological organisation of the research materials, Baxandall intellectual activity has been subdivided into four phases: (Chapter 1: 1951-1958) the passage from the literary education to the history of art; (Chapter 2: 1959-1971) the first researches at Warburg Institute; (Chapter 3: 1972-1985) the cultural and social history of art; (Chapter 4: 1986-2006) Berkeley and the renewed interest in visual perception. Each of these stages is characterised by prevailing themes or methodological choices. Chapter 1 deals with Baxandall's juvenile reflections about the respective limits and possibilities of literary criticism and the history and criticism of art. Chapter 2 reconstructs Baxandall's first researches at the Warburg Institute, which are characterised by a concern with 'visual languages' and lead to his first publications. Chapter 3 analyses the activity of the Seventies and the Eighties, which is focused on the theme of 'visual culture' and is characterised by a thorough confrontation with historiographical methodology. Chapter 4 highlights the importance of the science of vision in art criticism both in Baxandall's last publications and teaching activity, especially after his move to Berkeley University

L'homme augmenté en Europe : rêve et cauchemar de l'entre-deux-guerres The augmented man in Europe: dreams and nightmares between the wars

Dans l'entre-deux-guerres, nombre de penseurs ont porté le vœu d’élever l’homme au-delà de sa condition « naturelle » par différentes techniques, alimentant des débats un peu partout en Europe. Certains mouvements ont déjà été bien balisés et étudiés (l’« homme nouveau » des totalitarismes, celui de la pensée eugénique ou encore du courant technocratique). Cette typologie est-elle suffisante pour décrire la totalité des interrogations sur un « homme augmenté » qui traverse cet entre-deux-guerres ? Ou bien peut-on identifier un autre courant, à la croisée des précédents ou largement autonomes ? L’hypothèse que ces journées d’études souhaitent éprouver par l’analyse historique et philosophique est celle d’un tel courant de pensée à l’échelle de l’Europe. Les communications aborderont ainsi les rives russes, anglaises, espagnoles, allemandes, belges et françaises

Frameless image-guided neurosurgery in motion

The general objective of this thesis was the enhancement of image-guidance system use by optimizing “man-machine” interaction in frameless image-guided neurosurgery. Part I. The application of frameless stereotaxy in the neurosurgical practice We aimed to compare three patient-to-image registration methods in frameless stereotaxy in terms of their application accuracy (the accuracy with which the position of a target can be determined intraoperatively). The results of this study showed that skin adhesive fiducial marker registration is the most accurate non-invasive registration method (application accuracy of 2-3 mm). Another objective was to quantify intra- and interobserver variability of manual fiducial localization in image space. The maximal intraobserver fiducial localization variability and target shift was submillimetric in computed tomographic image space and in magnetic resonance image space. Therefore, we concluded that determining centroids of skin adhesive fiducial markers in image space by hand is justified. Part II. Novel applications in frameless trajectory-aligned neurosurgery We described a novel frameless stereotactic subcaudate tractotomy procedure with promising initial results in a patient suffering from intractable obsessive-compulsive disorder. We also introduced a simple modification to the free-hand frameless stereotactic placement of ventriculoperitoneal shunts in undersized ventricles. The use of an image-guided instrument holder prevented off-track deflection and was considered a valuable modification. Initial clinical results were good in shunt dependent idiopathic intracranial hypertension patients. Part III. Intraoperative feedback in open image-guided neurosurgery One of our aims was to analyze the movement of surgical instruments during frameless image-guided neurosurgical procedures. A custom-made log-mode has been implemented in the image-guidance software to file instrument coordinates intraoperatively. To mimic ordinary open neurosurgery, future neurosurgical (tele)robotic systems should at least support the instrument excursions and speeds found in our studies. Also, we described the clinical introduction of a novel type of man-machine interaction in neuronavigation using auditory feedback. We measured the effect of auditory feedback during image-guided surgery in a phantom setup and in a clinical setting. If not for enhancing extent of resection, auditory cues might be helpful to prevent damage of eloquent brain structures or to facilitate the aiming process in frameless point-stereotaxy. Furthermore, we developed a novel visualization interface for neuronavigation in brain tumor surgery enabling intraoperative feedback on the progress of surgery. With the novel interface the progress and extent of surgical resection, displacement of cortical anatomy and digitized functional data could be visualized intraoperatively. We concluded that the embedding of workflow and volumetric feedback contributes to the improvement of surgical awareness and tumor resection in frameless image-guided neurosurgery in a swift and simple manner. In our endeavor to enhance the use and efficacy of neuronavigation systems by improving hardware and augmenting the man-machine interface, we have shown that the field of frameless image-guided neurosurgery is still in motion. With the augmented man-machine interface, we have moved into an entirely new field of neuronavigation development, concerning the relay of the available information to the neurosurgeon. Converging multidisciplinary efforts may lead to integrating medical robotics and novel (intraoperative) direct visualization techniques with advanced neuronavigation systems

Democracy facing the posthuman condition : the transhumanist answer to the enigma of human humanity

Le transhumanisme promeut un modèle d’humanité intégralement soumis à la seule puissance technoscientifique qui se trouve elle-même orientée par l’idéologie néolibérale. La figure de « l’homme augmenté » ou « posthumain » se constitue sur la réduction de l’humain à ce qui dans sa condition est le plus « gouvernable », le plus docile, le plus facile à diriger et à adapter aux besoins d’efficacité et de performativité économique. Le transhumanisme devient ainsi le support de création et de conditionnement d’une nouvelle subjectivité disposée à se laisser conduire selon les exigences d’une société de marché. Le « posthumain » permettrait d’atteindre l’objectif ultime d’une dépolitisation totale des individus et de la société au profit d’une économisation intégrale des individus et de la société. Prise dans cette sotériologie transhumaniste, l’humanité des hommes n’apparaît plus comme une énigme (aínigma), comme ce que les hommes peuvent “laisser entendre de leur humanité” quand ils sont libres d’en questionner perpétuellement le sens qui renvoie à une Idée indéfinissable et donc essentiellement énigmatique [Robert Legros]. Lorsque l’énigme de l’humanité des hommes fait signe vers la condition politique [Hannah Arendt], elle constitue le moteur d’une démocratie toujours à venir [Jacques Derrida], invitant les hommes à s’approprier librement l’agir politique comme instrument de problématisation du sens de l’humain. Problématisation éminemment politique qui permet aux individus de refuser toute forme de normalisation aliénante de leur existence.En mobilisant les outils de la Théorie critique, de la philosophie politique, des théories de la démocratie et de l’histoire des idées politiques, l’enjeu de cette thèse réside dans l’analyse du mouvement transhumaniste à l’aune d’une domination de l’idéologie néolibérale qui dissimule le fait que l’utopie d’une posthumanité n’est que l’illusion idéologique d’une démocratie qui aura définitivement épuisé son énergie utopique en même temps qu’elle aura cessé de maintenir l’énigme de l’humanité des hommes comme la source politique d’une émancipation véritable.Transhumanism promotes a model of humanity that is entirely subject to the sole techno-scientific power that is itself oriented by neoliberal ideology. The figure of the "augmented man" or "posthuman" is constituted on the reduction of the human to what in its condition is the most "governable", the most docile, the easiest to direct and to adapt to the requirements of efficiency and economic performativity. Transhumanism thus becomes the support for the creation and conditioning of a new subjectivity willing to let itself be led according to the demands of a market society.The "posthuman" would allow to reach the ultimate objective of a total depoliticization of the individuals and the society to the profit of an integral economization of the individuals and the society. Taken in this transhumanist soteriology, the humanity of the men does not appear any more like an enigma, like what the men can “let understand of their humanity” when they are free to question perpetually the sense of it which refers to an indefinable Idea and thus essentially enigmatic [Robert Legros]. By mobilizing the tools of Critical Theory, political philosophy, theories of democracy and the history of political ideas, the stake of this thesis lies in the analysis of the transhumanist movement in the light of a domination of the neoliberal ideology which hides the fact that the utopia of a posthumanity is only the ideological illusion of a democracy which will have definitively exhausted its utopian energy at the same time as it will have ceased to maintain the enigma of the humanity of the men as the political source of a true emancipation

Les neuroprothèses

National audience- IntroductionNeuroprostheses are electronic or electromechanical devices connected to the nervous system to replace a defective organ. This article aims to review the state of the art of these devices. - MethodsThis article successively presents various neuroprostheses. If cochlear implants exist now for almost sixty years, this last decade, technological solutions to restore other senses like sight with artificial retinas, and touch with artificial skins have made significant progress. Similarly, myoprotheses, brain-machine interfaces and exoskeletons that aim to restore the control of a member are often headlines in the news. Myoprotheses are intended to compensate for the lack of an upper limb amputation recording from the surface of the skin nerve impulses transmitted to the muscles to control a prosthetic hand. Brain-Machine Interfaces record neural activity within the motor cortex, more rarely from the surface of the scalp, for decoding the motor order and transmit it to a motorized limb. Finally, exoskeletons are mechanical structures enveloping all or part of the body to animate it. - ResultsCochlear implants and myoelectric prothetics are now regularly offered respectively for people with severe or profound hearing loss and for forearm amputees. Increasing the resolution of artificial retinas should help in the medium term to offer not to blind people by birth but macular degeneration sufferers a basic visual perception of the environment. Finally, non-invasive motor neuroprostheses begin to be included into rehabilitation programs for stroke. Invasive ones, which decode up to the direction of movement, will still require many years of research in particular to integrate sensory feedback.- DiscussionThus beyond the announcement effect to get the attention of the public and funders, and enthusiasm for novelty of journalists what about the expectations of potential users, disappointments and satisfactions of patients, the actual number of people equipped, price and opportunities to use such devices outside of laboratories. - ConclusionThis article aims to position these new technologies between reality and fiction, expectations of persons under a disability, fantasies of the augmented Man and scientific difficulties.- ObjectifsLes neuroprothèses sont des dispositifs électroniques ou électromécaniques reliés au système nerveux permettant de remplacer un organe défectueux. Cet article a pour but de faire le point sur l’état actuel de ces dispositifs. - Méthode Cet article aborde successivement différentes neuroprothèses. Si l’implant cochléaire existe maintenant depuis presque soixante ans, cette dernière décennie, les solutions technologiques pour restaurer d’autres sens comme la vue avec des rétines artificielles, et le toucher avec des peaux artificielles ont fait d’importants progrès. De même, les myoprothèses, les interfaces cerveau-machine et les exosquelettes qui visent à restaurer le contrôle d’un membre occupent régulièrement l’actualité. Les myoprothèses sont destinées à pallier l’absence d’un membre supérieur suite à une amputation en enregistrant depuis la surface de la peau en amont l’influx nerveux transmis jusqu’aux muscles pour commander une prothèse de main. Les interfaces cerveau-machines enregistrent l’activité de neurones à l’intérieur du cortex moteur, plus rarement depuis la surface du scalp, pour décoder l’ordre moteur et le transmettre à un membre motorisé. Enfin, les exosquelettes sont des armatures mécaniques enveloppant tout ou une partie du corps pour l’animer. - RésultatsLes implants cochléaires et les myoprothèses sont maintenant régulièrement proposés respectivement aux personnes souffrant d’un déficit auditif sévère ou profond et aux personnes amputées au niveau de l’avant-bras. L’augmentation de la résolution des rétines artificielles devrait permettre à moyen terme de proposer aux personnes non aveugles de naissance mais atteintes de dégénérescence maculaire liée à l’âge une perception visuelle sommaire de leur environnement. Enfin, les neuroprothèses motrices non invasives commencent à être intégrées à des programmes de rééducation des accidents vasculaires cérébraux. Celles plus invasives permettant de décoder jusqu’à la direction du mouvement nécessiteront encore de nombreuses années de recherche en particulier pour intégrer pour un retour sensitif. - DiscussionAinsi au delà des effets d’annonces pour obtenir l’attention du public et des financeurs, et de l’enthousiasme des journalistes pour la nouveauté qu’en est-il des attentes des potentiels utilisateurs, des désillusions et des satisfactions vécues par les patients, du nombre réel de personnes équipées, du prix et des possibilités d’utiliser de tels dispositifs en dehors des laboratoires. - ConclusionsCet article vise à positionner ces nouvelles technologies entre réalité et fiction, attentes des personnes soumises à un handicap, fantasmes de l’Homme augmenté et difficultés scientifiques