Remote Sensing Applications in Monitoring of Protected Areas

Protected areas (PAs) have been established worldwide for achieving long-term goals in the conservation of nature with the associated ecosystem services and cultural values. Globally, 15% of the world’s terrestrial lands and inland waters, excluding Antarctica, are designated as PAs. About 4.12% of the global ocean and 10.2% of coastal and marine areas under national jurisdiction are set as marine protected areas (MPAs). Protected lands and waters serve as the fundamental building blocks of virtually all national and international conservation strategies, supported by governments and international institutions. Some of the PAs are the only places that contain undisturbed landscape, seascape and ecosystems on the planet Earth. With intensified impacts from climate and environmental change, PAs have become more important to serve as indicators of ecosystem status and functions. Earth’s remaining wilderness areas are becoming increasingly important buffers against changing conditions. The development of remote sensing platforms and sensors and the improvement in science and technology provide crucial support for the monitoring and management of PAs across the world. In this editorial paper, we reviewed research developments using state-of-the-art remote sensing technologies, discussed the challenges of remote sensing applications in the inventory, monitoring, management and governance of PAs and summarized the highlights of the articles published in this Special Issue

The variation of land surface phenology from 1982 to 2006 along the appalachian trail

The gradients of the Appalachian Trail (A.T.) in elevations and latitudes provide a megatransect to study environmental variations in the eastern United States. This paper reveals patterns and trends of land surface phenology (LSP) in association with climatic variables within a corridor area along the A.T. We employed time-series data from Global Inventory Modeling and Mapping Studies and the Surface Observation and Gridding System between 1982 and 2006 to extract spatial and temporal variation patterns of LSP metrics and the correlations with meteorological parameters. The derived trends in LSP metrics indicate that the extended length of season mainly resulted from delayed end of season (EOS) across the study area. More significant change occurred in the northern segment than in the southern segment, which reflects latitudinal effects. We analyzed the relationship between LSP and longitude, latitude, elevation, local climatic variables, and large-scale climate oscillations. Delayed start of season in 1989 and advanced EOS in 1988 were observed responding to the La Niña episode during 1988-1989. This paper provides information about the effects of climate and topography on LSP along the Appalachian Mountain ridges. © 1980-2012 IEEE

Using Long Time Series of Satellite Remote Sensing Data to Assess the Impact of Climate and Anthropogenic Changes in the Mesopotamian Marshes, Iraq

In the recent past, the Mesopotamia region has been rich in all forms of biological diversity, characterized by a fertile living environment and natural habitats full of rare birds, wild animals, aquatic animals, and diverse plants. Its natural abundance and geographical location have allowed it to be break or transit point for millions of migratory birds from Russia to South Africa. It is a breeding ground for many species of Persian Gulf fish. Despite all this historical, environmental and economic richness, they have been neglected as a result of the combination of a number of human and climatic factors, which in 16 years (1988-2003) has modified them to a land where vegetation, water, and biodiversity have been clearly reduced. This is a great environmental loss, not only for West Asia but for the whole world. This dissertation explores the changes in the vegetation coverage and water bodies in the Mesopotamian marshes, Iraq over more than three decades (36 years) using different sources of satellite remote sensing datasets. Firstly, we utilized Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) from the Land Long Term Data Record (LTDR) Version 5 which has a 0.05o x 0.05o in spatial resolution and daily temporal repeat to monitor the fluctuations of vegetation together with hydrological variables such precipitation, surface temperature, and evapotranspiration. In this research, we studied the impact of climate change and anthropogenic activities on vegetation and water coverage changes. Secondly, we compared Normalized Difference Vegetation Index from various satellite sensors - Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), Advanced Very High-Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR), and Landsat over the Mesopotamian marshlands for 17 years. We selected this time series (2002-2018) to monitor the changes in vegetation area. The time series (2002-2018) is considered as a period of rehabilitation for the Mesopotamian marshes. Thirdly, as a result of human factors and local and regional climate changes, the marshes and Iraq are in general vulnerable to face a large number of dust storms annually. According to local sources (Iraq news) and National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the time period from June 29 to July 8, 2009, is considered the longest dust storm period in Iraq during last decade. In this research, we utilized the Moderate Resolution Imagining Spectroradiometer, surface reflectance daily data to calculate the Normalized Difference Dust Index. Additionally, brightness temperature data from Aqua thermal band 31 were used to separate sand on the ground from atmospheric dust. The main reasons for the degradation of the Mesopotamian marshes were due to anthropogenic activities. In the comparison research, we found that the NDVI derived from MODIS, AVHRR and Landsat sensors are correlated with high precision. This paper investigates the utility of combining low spatial resolution with frequent temporal repeat and long-term coverage and a high spatial resolution with infrequent temporal repeat and similar long-term coverage. This study also proves that we can use the low-resolution Advance Very High- resolution Radiometer data for studies on land cover change

Análise multitemporal de vegetação em ecossistemas de áreas úmidas utilizando séries temporais derivadas do sensor modis na Ilha do Bananal – Tocantins

Dissertação (mestrado)—Universidade de Brasília, Instituto de Ciências Humanas, Departamento de Geografia, Programa de Pós-graduação, 2017.O sensoriamento remoto permite estudar os fenômenos da superfície terrestre em diversas escalas espaciais e temporais. A constante transformação dos ecossistemas, de forma abrupta ou contínua e de origem humana ou natural, cria a necessidade do desenvolvimento de técnicas que tenham a capacidade de detectar essas mudanças, identificar suas causas e monitorar o processo. Este trabalho se volta para as análises de séries temporais contínuas, que podem ser usadas no monitoramento de ecossistemas já que a continuidade dos dados permite traçar um perfil para o comportamento sazonal de cada fitofisionomia. O trabalho tem como objetivo desenvolver uma metodologia para identificação de padrões sazonais e classificação de alvos do uso do território e de áreas alagadas da Ilha do Bananal, estado do Tocantins, a partir do comportamento fenológico identificado nas séries temporais contínuas do sensor MODIS. A partir de então, o desenvolvimento da metodologia foi fracionado em quatro fases principais agrupando etapas temáticas sequenciais de acordo com seu escopo conceitual da seguinte forma: 1) Aquisição de dados do sensor MODIS; 2) Tratamento de Ruído; 3) Construção do Hipercubo Espectro-Temporal; e 4) Classificação e Teste de Acurácia. Para validação da classificação foram utilizados ponto de controle interpretados visualmente com base em imagens Landsat, a partir dos quais se calculou o índice Kappa. O filtro de mediana demonstrou a capacidade de eliminar picos ao mesmo tempo em que preserva os dados. Foi realizada uma classificação para áreas alagáveis – cujo Kappa foi de 0,8 – e uma para o uso da terra – cujo 2 Kappa foi de 0,648. A partir dos mapeamentos foi possível extrair informações sobre os ciclos de inundação e evolução da paisagem na região da Ilha do Bananal.Remote sensing allows us to study the phenomena of the earth's surface at various spatial and temporal scales. The constant transformation of ecosystems, abruptly or continuously and human induced or from natural origin, creates the need to develop techniques that are able to detect these changes, identify their causes, and monitor the process. This paper turns to the analysis of continuous time series, which can be used in the monitoring of ecosystems, given that the continuity of data allows tracing a profile for the seasonal behavior of each phytphysiognomy. This study’s objective is the development a methodology to identify seasonal patterns and classify land use targets and flooded areas in the Bananal Island, Tocantins state, from the phonologic behavior identified on continuous time series form NODIS sensor. From then on, the methodology development was fractioned in four main stages grouped in thematic sequential steps according to its conceptual scope as follows: 1) Acquisition of MODIS sensor data; 2) Noise Reduction; 3) Construction of the SpectralTemporal Hypercube; and 4) Classification and Accuracy Test. For the classification’s validation it was employed control point visually interpreted based on Landsat images, from which the kappa index was calculated. The median filter demonstrated the capacity of eliminating peaks while preserving the data. It was performed one classification for flooded areas – whose kappa was 0,8 – and one for land use – whose kappa was 0,648. From the mappings, it was possible to extract information regarding the flooding cycles and the landscape development for the Bananal island region

Changing landscapes: Compositional and phenological shifts in New Zealand's natural grassland

Vegetation in a wide range of ecosystems across the globe is responding to recent anthropogenic climate change. There are two key ecological responses in plants associated with recent anthropogenic climate change: shifts in species’ geographic distributions (range shifts) and shifts in the timing of key life cycle events (phenological shifts). These shifts can lead to temporal and spatial changes in vegetation composition and growth activity and hence ecosystem function. Understanding the patterns and processes of these shifts is crucial for the successful management of natural ecosystems under ongoing anthropogenic environmental change. This thesis investigates recent spatiotemporal compositional and phenological shifts in New Zealand’s natural grassland ecosystems and identifies potential topographical and climatic drivers of these shifts. Three grassland types in New Zealand are investigated (Alpine, Tall Tussock and Low Producing grasslands). They are characterised by high levels of indigenous endemic plant biodiversity and cover a wide elevation range. This thesis primarily utilises remote sensing information for quantifying growth dynamics and vegetation patterns in these grasslands over the last 16 years and across large spatial scales, i.e., the catchment of the river Clutha/Mata-Au River in South Island, New Zealand. Shrub encroachment in grassland ecosystems is a globally observed example of compositional shifts in ecosystems associated with recent anthropogenic climate change. In New Zealand, where extensive area of current grassland habitats exist because of anthropogenic deforestation, shrub encroachment into grasslands has two distinct facets: firstly the invasion of non-native shrub species into native grasslands (i.e., exotic shrub invasion) and secondly the dispersal of native woody and shrub species into native grasslands (i.e., native shrub recovery). Propagule pressure is a measurement of species’ seed source size in neighbourhood of a focal area, and it is a key determinant of the degree to which a location gets colonised by individuals from species present in the neighbourhood. The spatial patterns of potential native and exotic shrub propagule pressure on three grassland types in New Zealand were quantified with the assumption that proximity of higher shrub coverage indicates higher shrub propagule availability. Results show that Alpine grasslands are mostly surrounded by native shrublands, while Low producing grassland are most at risk from exotic shrub invasion from neighbouring areas. High native and exotic shrub propagule pressure does not generally coincide spatially, however, it occurs in very similar climates for Low Producing grassland but not for Alpine and Tall Tussock grassland. The analysis of recent shrub encroachment over the last five years in a tussock grassland area in the central South Island showed a 0.35% year-1 increase in shrub cover in grassland area located in immediate neighbourhood of shrub. Shrub encroachment speed was strongly correlated with shrub cover in the neighbourhood. Recent shrub encroachment into grasslands was most pronounced in areas with neighbouring shrub cover of greater than 40%. A wide range of species and ecosystems worldwide have shown changes in the timing of life cycle events and growing seasons in a direction congruent with recent anthropogenic climate changes. In this study, temporal trends over the last 16 years in the start, peak and end dates of the growing season were analysed using remotely sensed data on the Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) in New Zealand’s three main grassland types. Overall, 90% of Alpine, 86% of Tall Tussock and 89% of Low Producing grassland areas showed an advancing start of the growing season over the last 16 years. In these areas start of the growing advanced by 7.2, 6.0 and 8.8 days per decade in Alpine, Tall Tussock and Low Producing grassland, respectively. Only small changes in timing of the end of the growing season were observed in the three grassland types. The length of growing season extended by 3.2, 5.2 and 7.1 days per decade in three grassland types. Landscape topography (elevation and aspect) played an important role in particular in alpine grasslands: the start of the growing season was strongly correlated with elevation (later start with increasing elevation), while the end of the growing season was strongly correlated with aspect (later end of season on more south-facing slopes). The start of season was delayed by 7.5, 5.1 and 3.7 days/100 m elevation increase in Alpine, Tall Tussock and Low producing grassland, separately. The end of season was advanced by 1.7 (Alpine), 1.3 (Tall Tussock) and delayed by 0.3 (Low Producing) days/10-degree-south on the slopes in these three grassland types. The results from this thesis show that recent shrub invasion into New Zealand grasslands is highest near shrub areas once a threshold of shrub cover in the neighbourhood is reached. Shrub encroachment was highest at lower elevations and on north-facing slopes. It also highlighted a measurable shift to an earlier start and extended length of the growing season in New Zealand’s main grassland types over the last 16 years, but the magnitude of these shifts showed considerable geographic variation. Importantly, this study has shown a high degree of topographical control on the timing of the growing in New Zealand’s grasslands with elevation and aspect acting differentially on start and end of the growing season. This highlights the importance of landscape heterogeneity and microclimates for ecosystem responses to climate change. This study shows that remotely sensed data can be successfully used to elucidate ecosystem-level shifts in temporal dynamics and spatial patterns of vegetation growth in grassland ecosystems