On the instability and constraints of the interaction between number representation and spatial attention in healthy humans. A concise review of the literature and new experimental evidence

.The relationship between number and space representation is still one of the most debated topics in studies of mathematical cognition. Here we offer a concise review of two important behavioral effects that have pointed out the use of a spatially left-to-right oriented mental number line (MNL) in healthy participants: the SNARC effect and the attentional SNARC effect (Att-SNARC). Following a brief summary of seminal investigations on the introspective properties of the MNL, we review recent empirical evidence and theories on the functional origin of the SNARC effect, where upon left/right response choices faster reaction times are found for small numbers with left-side responses and for large numbers with right-side responses. Then we offer a summary of the studies that have investigated whether the mere perception of visual Arabic numbers presented at central fixation can engender spatially congruent lateral shifts of attention, ie, leftward for small numbers and rightward for large ones, ie, the Att-SNARC effect. Finally, we summarize four experiments that tested whether the Att-SNARC depends on an active rather than passive processing of centrally presented digit cues. In line with other recent studies, these experiment do not replicate the original Att-SNARC and show that the mere perception of Arabic numerals does not trigger automatic shifts of attention. These shifts are instead found when the task requires the explicit left/right spatial coding of digit cues, ie, Spatial Att-SNARC (Fattorini et al., 2015b). Nonetheless, the reliability of the Spatial Att-SNARC effect seems not as strong as that of conventional SNARC effects where left/ right codes are mapped onto responses rather than directly mapped on digit cues. Comparing the magnitude of digits to a numerical reference, ie, "5," also produced a Magnitude Comparison Att-SNARC that was weaker than the spatial one. However, the reliability of this Magnitude Comparison Att-SNARC should be considered with caution because, like in a study by Zanolie and Pecher (2014), we recently failed to replicate this effect in a separate behavioral-eventrelated potentials study in preparation (Fattorini et al., 2015a). All together the results from the present series of experiments support the hypothesis that spatial coding is not an intrinsic part of number representation and that number-space interaction is determined by the use of stimulus-or response-related spatial codes in the task at han

Verbal vs. visual coding in modified mental imagery map exploration task

We modified classical mental exploration task introducing verbal modality. Consequently, we could test robust effects from lexical processing in an attempt to understand whether the underlying mental representation is strictly propositional. In our three experiments, in addition to map modality (visual or verbal), lexical frequency, concreteness and visual frequency were also varied. The symbolic distance effect was replicated, regardless of map modality. Exploration of distances was regularly faster on pictorial maps. Effects of lexical frequency and concreteness were not significant for verbal maps. However, when visual frequency was introduced on pictorial maps both type of frequencies generated measurable effects. Our findings directly contradict the assumptions of propositional theories (1) subjects were faster in the visual modality, which would be difficult to explain if the perceptual code had to be transformed into propositional, (2) word frequency and concreteness did not contribute as would be expected if propositional code were a default

Situation models and children’s reading comprehension: what role does visual imagery play?

Individual differences in children’s reading comprehension have been attributed to the level at which a reader is able to construct a coherent meaning-based mental representation of the situation described in a text (i.e., a “situation model”). However, although there is evidence that situation models contain perceptual information such as visual imagery, it is yet to be established whether visual imagery contributes to children’s reading comprehension via its role in situation model construction. To investigate this, three studies were conducted with children in Grades 4 and 5 (age range: 8.08-11.17 years) as part of the current thesis. Study 1 explored the utility of several measures of visual imagery and examined whether this construct is best captured by the differentiation of separate visual imagery processes in this younger population. Fifty-nine children completed five measures of visual imagery, each designed to capture a distinct subcomponent of the visual imagery system, including image generation, image maintenance, image scanning, image transformation, and image strength/vividness. It was found that the visual imagery measures were not highly related to one another and thus each represented a unique construct. However, not all of the included measures proved to be valid and reliable. Utilising the measures of visual imagery that were found to have adequate psychometric properties in Study 1, Study 2 then examined the influence of different subtypes of visual imagery (image maintenance, image scanning and image transformation) on individual differences in reading comprehension. In addition, this study further investigated existing criticisms that traditional measures of reading comprehension do not capture all of the skills involved in situation model construction, by including two separate measures of reading comprehension: a traditional standardised measure (the Neale Analysis of Reading Ability), and a newer measure designed from cognitive theory, which measures higher-level comprehension processes separate to the effects of lower-level reading ability (the Diagnostic Assessment of Reading Comprehension; DARC). It was found that each subtype of visual imagery differentially predicted reading comprehension. In addition, each measure of reading comprehension was differentially influenced by variations in word reading ability and verbal working memory, with evidence that the Neale was more influenced by lower-level reading skills and simple verbal working memory, whereas the DARC was more influenced by non-verbal reasoning and complex verbal working memory. However, visual imagery was not found to be a reliable predictor of reading comprehension; although, this may have been due to an incongruity between the type of imagery that occurs during objective tasks of visual imagery and the visual simulation of narrative events. Thus, Study 3 was designed to disrupt good and poor comprehenders’ visual imagery during reading in order to determine whether good comprehenders show more reliance on visual imagery during comprehension than poor comprehenders. Unexpectedly, however, good comprehenders showed limited evidence of engaging in higher-level comprehension processes (i.e., predictive inferencing) even when imagery was not impaired. Despite this, important implications regarding the use of both textbase and imagery-based representations were revealed, as poor comprehenders displayed increased difficulty maintaining a verbal load during reading compared to a visuospatial load. This suggests that in comparison to good comprehenders, poor comprehenders may have a greater reliance on textbase over imagery-based representations during reading. Overall, this thesis adds to the literature that suggests not all reading comprehension measures are interchangeable in regard s to the underlying skills that they measure. Further, visual imagery may be relevant to reading comprehension; yet, it is likely that this relationship will be further established through careful conceptualisation and measurement of visual imagery versus visual simulation. These findings have implications regarding the use of existing comprehension measures in research and practice, and may also aid future research that investigates the role of visual imagery in higher-level comprehension processes

An analysis of current evidence supporting two alternate learning models: Learning styles and dual coding.

This paper examines the research evidence behind two alternate and mutually exclusive learning models- learning styles and dual coding. The most common incarnation of each model is based on learning modalities, and each makes predictions about how learners process auditory and visual stimuli. Learning styles have found wide acceptance in public perception and throughout education at all levels, yet the majority of empirical research suggests that the model is not accurate and that learning styles instruction has no effect on student learning. Dual coding is more strongly supported by empirical research yet less well known and less commonly used in practice. The analysis examines evidence from a wide variety of sources, including experimental studies, correlational research, teacher-education texts, and neuroimaging studies. The findings reveal that dual coding is likely to be the more accurate model and that it offers more potential for both research and in practical application

On the need for Embodied and Dis-Embodied Cognition

This essay proposes and defends a pluralistic theory of conceptual embodiment. Our concepts are represented in at least two ways: (i) through sensorimotor simulations of our interactions with objects and events and (ii) through sensorimotor simulations of natural language processing. Linguistic representations are “dis-embodied” in the sense that they are dynamic and multimodal but, in contrast to other forms of embodied cognition, do not inherit semantic content from this embodiment. The capacity to store information in the associations and inferential relationships among linguistic representations extends our cognitive reach and provides an explanation of our ability to abstract and generalize. This theory is supported by a number of empirical considerations, including the large body of evidence from cognitive neuroscience and neuropsychology supporting a multiple semantic code explanation of imageability effects

The temporary nature of number-space interactions

It is commonly accepted that the mental representation and processing of numbers and of space are tightly linked. This is evident from studies that have shown relations between math ability and visuospatial skill. Also, math instruction and education rely strongly on visuospatial tools and strategies. The dominant explanation for these number—space interactions is that the mental representation of numbers takes the form of a mental number line with numbers positioned in ascending order according to our reading habits. A long-standing debate is whether the link between numbers and space can be considered as evidence for a spatial number representation in long-term semantic memory, or whether this spatial frame is a temporary representation that emerges in working memory (WM) during task execution. We summarise our recent work that suggests basic number processing tasks do not operate on a long-term spatial memory representation, but on a representation constructed in serial order WM, where the elements are spatially coded as a function of their ordinal position in the memorised sequence. Implications for a new theoretical framework linking serial order WM and basic number processing are discussed

On the need for embodied and dis-embodied cognition

This essay proposes and defends a pluralistic theory of conceptual embodiment. Our concepts are represented in at least two ways: (i) through sensorimotor simulations of our interactions with objects and events and (ii) through sensorimotor simulations of natural language processing. Linguistic representations are “dis-embodied” in the sense that they are dynamic and multimodal but, in contrast to other forms of embodied cognition, do not inherit semantic content from this embodiment. The capacity to store information in the associations and inferential relationships among linguistic representations extends our cognitive reach and provides an explanation of our ability to abstract and generalize. This theory is supported by a number of empirical considerations, including the large body of evidence from cognitive neuroscience and neuropsychology supporting a multiple semantic code explanation of imageability effects

Dual-Modal Presentation of Sequential Information

on human attention, this study intends to design a visualauditory information presentation to: (1) minimize the interference in information processing between visual and auditory channels; and (2) improve the effectiveness of mental integration of information from different modalities. Baddeley suggests that imagery spatial information and verbal information can be concurrently held in different subsystems within human working memory. Accordingly, this research proposes a method to convert sequential textual information into its graphical and verbal representations and hypothesizes that this dualmodal presentation will result in superior comprehension performance and higher satisfaction as compared to pure textual display. Simple T-tests will be used to test the hypothesis. Results of this study will help to address usability problems associated with small-screen computers. Findings may also benefit interface design of generic computer systems by alleviating the overabundance of information output in the visual channel

Reading a story. Different degrees of learning in different learning environments

he learning environment in which material is acquired may produce differences in delayed recall and in the elements that individuals focus on. These differences may appear even during development. In the present study, we compared three different learning environments in 450 normally developing 7-year-old children subdivided into three groups according to the type of learning environment. Specifically, children were asked to learn the same material shown in three different learning environments: reading illustrated books (TB); interacting with the same text displayed on a PC monitor and enriched with interactive activities (PC-IA); reading the same text on a PC monitor but not enriched with interactive narratives (PC-NoIA). Our results demonstrated that TB and PC-NoIA elicited better verbal memory recall. In contrast, PC-IA and PCNoIA produced higher scores for visuo-spatial memory, enhancing memory for spatial relations, positions and colors with respect to TB. Interestingly, only TB seemed to produce a deeper comprehension of the story's moral. Our results indicated that PC-IA offered a different type of learning that favored visual details. In this sense, interactive activities demonstrate certain limitations, probably due to information overabundance, emotional mobilization, emphasis on images and effort exerted in interactive activities. Thus, interactive activities, although entertaining, act as disruptive elements which interfere with verbal memory and deep moral comprehensio