Multiscale simulation of frequency dependent line models and network equivalents

The evaluation of power systems encompasses phenomenon of distinct timeframes and so leads to the adoption of different simulation tools. For instance, fast transients related to switching maneuvers require time-steps of microseconds while slow transients, related to energy exchange between generators, demand timesteps of milliseconds. However, the need to assess conditions where slow frequency oscillations might be combined with fast transients is becoming more common. This research evaluates the use of frequency dependent admittance-based models in the development of multiscale algorithms for phase-coordinate modeling of overhead lines, subsea cables and frequency dependent network equivalents. Unlike the modeling with the Method of Characteristics, the direct fitting of the nodal admittance matrix and two alternative schemes are considered to cope with the trade-off between time-step and traveling times, namely: the Folded Line Equivalent and Idempotent Decomposition. The concept of Latency is also addressed in a distinct way to provide more efficient realization frequency dependent models to allow the so-called multirate simulation. The major advantage of the designed models is the straightforward implementation in EMTP-like programs such as PSCAD, EMTP-RV and ATP since they attain the same Norton-type structure. In addition, dynamic phasors allowed the unification of electromagnetic and electromechanical modeling into a single model. Both numerical performance and accuracy of the proposed schemes are evaluated through several test cases. The Method of Characteristics and the Numerical Laplace Transform are used for comparison. The computational burden is considerably reduced without significant loss of accuracy and with no numerical oscillations or discontinuities in the waveforms.A análise de sistemas elétricos engloba fenômenos com diferentes constantes de tempo, o que acarreta na utilização de diversas ferramentas de simulação. Como exemplo, transitórios rápidos envolvendo surtos de manobra demandam passos de integração na ordem de microssegundos enquanto para transitórios lentos, advindos da troca de energia entre geradores, adotam-se passos de integração de milissegundos. O presente trabalho investiga a utilização de modelos baseados em matrizes de admitância variantes na frequência para representação de linhas de transmissão aéreas, cabos submarinos e equivalentes de rede em coordenadas de fase para o desenvolvimento de algoritmos para simulação multiescala. Ao invés da utilização do Método das Características, a matriz de admitância nodal e duas decomposições alternativas são consideradas de modo a contornar a limitação do passo de integração em função do tempo de tráfego de linhas, a saber: o Folded Line Equivalent e a Decomposição Idempotente. O conceito de Latência será também investigado de modo a prover uma realização mais eficiente de modelos variantes na frequência. As formulações desenvolvidas neste trabalho encontram aplicação imediata em programas para simulação de transitórios eletromagnéticos, tais como PSCAD, EMTP-RV e ATP dado que é mantida a representação através dos equivalentes de Norton. Por meio de fasores dinâmicos, torna-se viável a representação de fenômenos eletromagnéticos e eletromecânicos com o mesmo modelo computacional. Casos teste são empregados na avaliação do desempenho e precisão das formulações propostas. O Método das Características e a transformada numérica de Laplace são utilizados para fins de comparação. Com reduzido esforço computacional, resultados com excelente precisão são obtidos sem a presença de oscilações numéricas ou descontinuidades nas formas de onda

Advancements in Real-Time Simulation of Power and Energy Systems

Modern power and energy systems are characterized by the wide integration of distributed generation, storage and electric vehicles, adoption of ICT solutions, and interconnection of different energy carriers and consumer engagement, posing new challenges and creating new opportunities. Advanced testing and validation methods are needed to efficiently validate power equipment and controls in the contemporary complex environment and support the transition to a cleaner and sustainable energy system. Real-time hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) simulation has proven to be an effective method for validating and de-risking power system equipment in highly realistic, flexible, and repeatable conditions. Controller hardware-in-the-loop (CHIL) and power hardware-in-the-loop (PHIL) are the two main HIL simulation methods used in industry and academia that contribute to system-level testing enhancement by exploiting the flexibility of digital simulations in testing actual controllers and power equipment. This book addresses recent advances in real-time HIL simulation in several domains (also in new and promising areas), including technique improvements to promote its wider use. It is composed of 14 papers dealing with advances in HIL testing of power electronic converters, power system protection, modeling for real-time digital simulation, co-simulation, geographically distributed HIL, and multiphysics HIL, among other topics

Dynamic Phasor Modeling of Type 3 Wind Farm including Multi-mass and LVRT Effects

The proportion of power attributable to wind generation has grown significantly in the last two decades. System impact studies such as load flow studies and short circuit studies, are important for planning before integration of any new wind generation into the existing power grid. Short circuit modelling is central in these planning studies to determine protective relay settings, protection coordination, and equipment ratings. Numerous factors, such as low voltage situations, power electronic switching, control actions, sub-synchronous oscillations, etc., influence the response of wind farms to short circuit conditions, and that makes short circuit modelling of wind farms an interesting, complex, and challenging task. Power electronics-based converters are very common in wind power plants, enabling the plant to operate at a wide range of wind speeds and provide reactive power support without disconnection from the grid during low voltage scenarios. This has led to the growth of Type 3 (with rotor side converter) and Type 4 (with stator side full converter) wind generators, in which power electronics-based converters and controls are an integral part. The power electronics in these generators are proprietary in nature, which makes it difficult to obtain the necessary information from the manufacturer to model them accurately in planning studies for conditions such as those found during faults or low voltage ride through (LVRT) periods. The use of power electronic controllers also has led to phenomena such as sub-synchronous control interactions in series compensated Type 3 wind farms, which are characterized by non-fundamental frequency oscillations. The above factors have led to the need to develop generic models for wind farms that can be used in studies by planners and protection engineers. The current practice for short circuit modelling of wind farms in the power industry is to utilize transient stability programs based on either simplified electromechanical fundamental frequency models or detailed electromagnetic time domain models. The fundamental frequency models are incapable of representing the majority of critical wind generator fault characteristics, such as during power electronic switching conditions and sub-synchronous interactions. The detailed time domain models, though accurate, demand high levels of computation and modelling expertise. A simple yet accurate modelling methodology for wind generators that does not require resorting to fundamental frequency based simplifications or time domain type simulations is the basis for this research work. This research work develops an average value model and a dynamic phasor model of a Type 3 DFIG wind farm. The average value model replaces the switches and associated phenomena by equivalent current and voltage sources. The dynamic phasor model is based on generalized averaging theory, where the system variables are represented as time varying Fourier coefficients known as dynamic phasors. The two types models provide a generic type model and achieve a middle ground between conventional electromechanical models and the cumbersome electromagnetic time domain models. The dynamic phasor model enables the user to consider each harmonic component individually; this selective view of the components of the system response is not achievable in conventional electromagnetic transient simulations. Only the appropriate dynamic phasors are selected for the required fault behaviour to be represented, providing greater computational efficiency than detailed time domain simulations. A detailed electromagnetic transient (EMT) simulation model is also developed in this thesis using a real-time digital simulator (RTDS). The results obtained with the average value model and the dynamic phasor model are validated with an accurate electromagnetic simulation model and some state-of-the-art industrial schemes: a voltage behind transient reactance model, an analytical expression model, and a voltage dependent current source model. The proposed RTDS models include the effect of change of flux during faulted conditions in the wind generator during abnormal system conditions instead of incorrectly assuming it is a constant. This was not investigated in previous studies carried out in the real-time simulations laboratory at the University of Saskatchewan or in various publications reported in the literature. The most commonly used LVRT topologies, such as rotor side crowbar circuit, DC-link protection scheme, and series dynamic braking resistance (SDBR) in rotor and stator circuits, are investigated in the short circuit studies. The RTDS model developed uses a multi-mass (three-mass) model of the mechanical drive train instead of a simple single-mass model to represent torsional dynamics. The single mass model considers the blade inertia, the turbine hub, and the generator as a single lumped mass and so cannot reproduce the torsional behaviour. The root cause of sub-synchronous frequencies in Type 3 wind generators is not well understood by system planners and protection engineers. Some literature reports it is self excitation while others report it is due to sub-synchronous control interactions. One publication in the stability literature reports on a small signal analysis study aimed at finding the root cause of the problem, and a similar type of analysis was performed in this thesis. A linearized model was developed, which includes the generator model, a three mass drive train, rotor side converter, and the grid side converter represented as a constant voltage source. The linear model analysis showed that the sub-synchronous oscillations are due to control interactions between the rotor side controller of the Type 3 wind power plant and the series capacitor in the transmission line. The rotor side controls were tuned to obtain a stable response at higher levels of compensation. A real-time simulation model of a 450 MW Type 3 wind farm consisting of 150 units transmitting power via 345 kV transmission line was developed on the RTDS. The dynamic phasor method is shown to be accurate for representing faults at the point of interconnection of the wind farm to the grid for balanced and unbalanced faults as well as for different sub- synchronous oscillation frequencies

Renewable Energy

Renewable Energy is energy generated from natural resources - such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides and geothermal heat - which are naturally replenished. In 2008, about 18% of global final energy consumption came from renewables, with 13% coming from traditional biomass, such as wood burning. Hydroelectricity was the next largest renewable source, providing 3% (15% of global electricity generation), followed by solar hot water/heating, which contributed with 1.3%. Modern technologies, such as geothermal energy, wind power, solar power, and ocean energy together provided some 0.8% of final energy consumption. The book provides a forum for dissemination and exchange of up - to - date scientific information on theoretical, generic and applied areas of knowledge. The topics deal with new devices and circuits for energy systems, photovoltaic and solar thermal, wind energy systems, tidal and wave energy, fuel cell systems, bio energy and geo-energy, sustainable energy resources and systems, energy storage systems, energy market management and economics, off-grid isolated energy systems, energy in transportation systems, energy resources for portable electronics, intelligent energy power transmission, distribution and inter - connectors, energy efficient utilization, environmental issues, energy harvesting, nanotechnology in energy, policy issues on renewable energy, building design, power electronics in energy conversion, new materials for energy resources, and RF and magnetic field energy devices