Cross-cultural differences and similarities in proneness to shame: An adaptationist and ecological approach

People vary in how easily they feel ashamed, that is, in their shame proneness. According to the information threat theory of shame, variation in shame proneness should, in part, be regulated by features of a person’s social ecology. On this view, shame is an emotion program that evolved to mitigate the likelihood or costs of reputation-damaging information spreading to others. In social environments where there are fewer possibilities to form new relationships (i.e., low relational mobility), there are higher costs to damaging or losing existing ones. Therefore, shame proneness toward current relationship partners should increase as perceived relational mobility decreases. In contrast, individuals with whom one has little or no relationship history are easy to replace, and so shame-proneness towards them should not be modulated by relational mobility. We tested these predictions cross-culturally by measuring relational mobility and shame proneness towards friends and strangers in Japan, the United States, and the United Kingdom. Japanese subjects were more shame-prone than their British and American counterparts. Critically, lower relational mobility was associated with greater shame proneness towards friends (but not strangers), and this relationship partially mediated the cultural differences in shame proneness. Shame proneness appears tailored to respond to relevant features of one’s social ecology

Shame Proneness as a Vulnerability Factor for Negative Emotions in the Context of Interpersonal Stressors: An Experience Sampling Study

Shame proneness is associated with psychopathology and may serve as a risk factor for experiencing distressing emotions at subclinical and clinical levels across diagnoses. Additionally, shame-prone individuals may have increased sensitivity toward interpersonal stressors and negative shifts in self-evaluations. However, little to no research has examined shame proneness as a prospective risk factor for distressed moods following interpersonal stressors using experience sampling methods. Furthermore, disagreement on theories of shame make it difficult to achieve consistent results in the literature. The purpose of this study was to assess whether shame proneness acts as a risk factor for distressed moods in the context of interpersonal stressors. Participants included 152 (76% female) undergraduate students (Mage = 19.51, SD = 2.09) varying across clinical and non-clinical levels of anxiety and mood disorders. Participants completed baseline measures of shame- and guilt-proneness followed by ratings of stressful interactions for five weeks, three times a week. Participants rated the degree to which the stressful event involved the other individual’s negative evaluation, and the degree to which the participants viewed themselves as having agency (i.e., status, social standing) and communion (i.e., social connection) as a result of the interaction. Participants also rated concurrent depressed, anxious, and angry moods at the time of the interaction. Multilevel modeling was used to test the effects of shame proneness (controlling for guilt proneness) on daily distressed moods and moderations with the above person-mean centered interpersonal stressors. Results showed that grand-mean centered shame proneness prospectively predicted depressed and anxious but not angry moods across stressor contexts (b = 0.02, 95CI = [0.01, 0.04]; b = 0.02, 95CI = [0.01, 0.04]; and b = 0.02, 95CI = [-0.01, 0.03], respectively). Only perceived negative evaluation interacted with shame proneness when predicting angry mood (b = 0.0001, 95CI = [0.0001, 0.0005]), such that individuals higher in shame proneness experienced even more angry mood following these stressors relative to less shame-prone peers. Shame proneness did not interact with perceived submission or disconnectedness when predicting distressed moods, contrary to hypotheses. Implications for theory of shame are discussed

Positive and Negative Perfectionism and the Shame and Guilt Dichotomy: Their Relationship and Their Relationship to Adaptive and Maladaptive Characteristics

Past studies have suggested that perfectionism is a maladaptive behavior. Also, studies have linked shame to several maladaptive traits and to perfectionism as it has been recently measured, which supports current theories of shame but not the current theories that suggest guilt is an adaptive emotion. Using Terry-Short’s PNP scale designed to measure negative and positive perfectionism, this research demonstrated that perfectionism could be adaptive as well as maladaptive. Negative perfectionism was positively correlated to state shame and guilt, shame-proneness, with guilt-proneness demonstrating a less significant relationship but with a similar trend. Anxiety and hostility were positively correlated to negative perfectionism, state shame and guilt, and shame-proneness. Positive perfectionism demonstrated a positive correlation with pride and negative correlations to state shame and guilt

Masculine Gender Role Stress and Shame Proneness as Serial Mediators in the Relation Between Intimate Partner Aggression Victimization and Psychological Symptom Status in Men

The current study examined the indirect effect of male intimate partner aggression victimization on psychological symptom status through masculine gender role stress (MGRS) and shame proneness operating as serial mediators. Male college students (N = 74) completed self-report measures of intimate partner aggression, psychological symptoms, MGRS, and shame proneness. Results indicated a significant indirect effect of physical victimization on psychological symptom status through MGRS and shame proneness operating in sequence; results showed no significant indirect effect for psychological victimization. These results suggest that, perhaps, physical victimization creates increased MGRS, which, in turn, leads to greater shame proneness, which, likewise, produces increased psychological symptoms. Possible interpretations of differential findings for physical and psychological victimization are discussed in relation to differential threat to masculinity. Additionally, exploratory analyses for specific psychological symptom clusters (i.e., depression, anxiety, and hostility) are presented and discussed

Identifying the Bases for Gender Differences in Guilt and Shame

Gender differences are frequently revealed on the popular TOSCA-2 measure of guilt- and shame-proneness. These gender differences could reflect biases in the eliciting conditions that participants evaluate and confounds between them. A new instrument, the Gender Relevant Test of Self-Conscious Affect (GR-TOSCA), was developed to eliminate these confounds, thereby introducing a gender-sensitive, and therefore more valid, measure of guilt and shame proneness. The psychometric integrity of the new instrument, hypotheses regarding condition-specific gender differences in the two emotions, and relationships of guilt- and shame-proneness scores to gender role endorsement were examined in a sample of undergraduate students (93 men and 109 women). Encouraging evidence was produced for the reliability and validity of the GR-TOSCA, but the hypothesized gender differences in guilt and shame proneness were not found. Several possibilities for these results are explored, including the possibility of biases in the research procedure

The Role of Gender Differences in the Relationship Between Guilt- and Shame-Proneness and Depressive Symptomatology

The purpose of this study was to examine the role played by gender in the relationship between the degree of depressive symptomatology and levels of adaptive guilt-, maladaptive guilt-, and shame-proneness in a college population. A measure of depressive symptomatology (the Beck Depression Inventory) and a measure of guilt- and shame-proneness (the Self-Conscious Affect and Attribution Inventory - Revised) were administered to 299 college students (113 males and 186 females). Females reported higher total levels of depressive symptomatology than males. Statistically significant gender differences were found for nine BDI items. Females also had higher levels of adaptive guilt-, maladaptive guilt-, and shame-proneness. However, correlations among the three emotion variables and levels of depressive symptomatology were generally low, and the correlations for males were higher than those for females. The percentage of variance in depression accounted for by the emotion variables was also low. However, the hypothesized relationships were found in preliminary results from the 19 subjects with depression scores greater than 18, and implications for future research were discussed. The results were compared to past research on gender differences in depression in college populations, as well as previous research relating guilt- and shame-proneness to depression. The socialization of gender differences in guilt- and shame-proneness was also discussed

Brooding, Avoidance, and Suppression as Mechanisms Linking Shame-Proneness with Depressive Symptoms

Depression is a significant mental health concern. Cognitive-affective models of depression identify that negative emotions and cognitive strategies for responding to negative emotions contribute to the development and maintenance of depressive symptoms. Shame has been identified as a problematic negative emotion and is associated with multiple mental health concerns including depression. Research has begun to examine cognitive emotion regulation strategies individuals use when experiencing shame and how these contribute to depressive symptoms. This study examined three strategies jointly (avoidance, brooding, and suppression) in a three-part prospective design. In a sample of 137 young adults, three hypotheses were tested. Participants ranged from 18 to 29-years-old (M = 19.29, SD = 1.56), 83.2% of the participants were female, and 74.5% were Caucasian. In cross-sectional analyses, shame-proneness predicted depressive symptoms (B = .029, 95% CI = .010 to .048, p = .003) and brooding mediated this relationship as hypothesized (B = .010, 95% CI = .003 to .019, p = .005). In prospective analyses shame-proneness marginally predicted depressive symptoms (B = .016, 95% CI = -.002 to .033, p = .074) and only suppression mediated the relationship when controlling for guilt-proneness (B = .012, 95% CI = .004 to .024, p = .002). Post hoc analyses of each mediator examined separately supported avoidance (B = .018, Z = 3.251, p = .001), brooding (B = .020, Z = 3.501, p = .001), and suppression (B = .022, Z = 3.602, p \u3c .001) as cognitive strategies in the relationship between shame-proneness and depressive symptoms prospectively. State shame was predicted to mediate the relationship between shame-proneness and state brooding, avoidance, and suppression. The shame induction did induce a significant change in shame [t (114) = -2.814, p = .006] but a small effect (r = .25). Therefore, hypothesis 3 was not supported. However, shame-proneness did predict use of avoidance (B = .003, p = .048) and brooding in the moment (B = .003, p = .071). These findings suggest that shame-proneness and avoidance, brooding, and suppression are significant factors to consider in treating depression. Future directions of research and clinical implications are discussed

High Trait Shame Undermines the Protective Effects of Prevalence Knowledge on State Shame Following HPV/CIN Diagnosis in Women

Human papillomavirus (HPV), and the related, cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN), are common yet poorly understood physical conditions. The diagnosis of HPV often elicits shame and guilt, which in turn may undermine psychological and physical health. The current study compared shame and guilt responses to diagnosis among two groups: women diagnosed with HPV/CIN and women diagnosed with Epstein–Barr Virus (EBV/IM). Eighty women recently diagnosed with HPV/CIN or EBV/IM completed measures of shame- and guilt-proneness, shame and guilt following diagnosis, and disease knowledge including prevalence estimates (HPV and EBV, respectively). HPV/CIN (vs. EBV/IM) predicted more diagnosis-related shame and guilt. Estimates of high prevalence interacted with diagnosis and shame-proneness to predict diagnosis-related shame. Simple slope analyses indicated that in women with HPV/CIN reporting low-to-average shame-proneness, high prevalence estimates reduced diagnosis-related shame; however, women high in shame-proneness experienced high diagnosis-related shame regardless of more accurate prevalence estimates. Women high in shame-proneness appear to be particularly vulnerable to HPV-related shame even when they are aware that it is very common

A Mediational Model of Religiosity and Obsessive-Compulsive Symptomology: The Role of Guilt and Shame in a Nonclinical Sample

High levels of religiosity have been associated as a precursor for obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and obsessive-compulsive symptomology (OCS), with previous studies finding positive correlations between the two variables. To date, however, the literature on the connection is limited, especially regarding nonclinical samples. The role of mediating variables has also been severely underresearched. The current study investigated the relationship between religiosity and OCS in a nonclinical religious-populace sample. It was hypothesized that strict followings of high religiosity would be associated with heightened OCS. Shame-proneness and guilt-proneness were additionally investigated and evaluated as potential mediators for the relationship of religiosity and OCS. A sample of 92 participants from the religious population participated in this nonclinical study, completing unique self-report questionnaires assessing guilt-proneness, shame-proneness, religiosity, and OCS. As hypothesized, there was a significant relationship between religiosity and OCS in this novel sample; however, this interaction was not mediated by guilt- and shame-proneness, although shame-proneness mediated the intellect dimension of religiosity. This therefore suggests that the association between religiosity and OCS in a nonclinical religious-populace sample cannot be explained by guilt- and shame-proneness. Future research should investigate the potential moderating impact of religious type/denomination and culture (external customs associated with a particular religious affiliation) separately to parse out the influence of these factors in the relationship, because of the stigma surrounding diagnosis and therapeutic help that is present and perpetuated in some religious cultures, remedying with a prescription of further prayer. Longitudinal designs and examination of other potential mediators in the relationship of religiosity and OCS (due to insignificant mediation), such as thought-action fusion (TAF), will also be an avenue for future research, as TAF has been found as a mediator in a clinical sample of this relationship

Religiosity, Moral Disapproval, Shame and Pornography Use: Assessing the Relationship Between Shame and Sexual Behaviors

Many compulsive and hypersexualized behaviors, including pornography use, have been associated with negative emotional, neurological, and psychosocial problems in a subset of users. Research showed that the constructs of shame, shame-proneness, and attachment may be related to the use of pornography as well as the theory of addiction. Shame-proneness is a construct that is consistently and positively associated with a variety of internalizing symptoms including depression, social, and generalized anxiety as well as a linked to an assortment of externalizing and risky behaviors such as anger, substance use, and criminal offending. Research suggested that higher levels of religiosity have a strong relationship to the moral disapproval of the use of pornography based on individual religious beliefs. This study examined the correlation between religiosity and sexual shame based on earlier research, which hypothesized that moral disapproval would mediate the relationship between religiosity and sexual shame. This research also hypothesized that shame-proneness would moderate the relationships between religiosity and moral disapproval, moral disapproval, and sexual shame, and finally the relationship between religiosity and sexual shame. The results showed that consistent with earlier research; moral disapproval mediated the relationship between religiosity and sexual shame. The study found that shame-proneness was a direct predictor of sexual shame however it did not moderate direct or indirect effects on the proposed theoretical relationships