Cross-Platform Question Answering in Social Networking Services

The last two decades have made the Internet a major source for knowledge seeking. Several platforms have been developed to find answers to one's questions such as search engines and online encyclopedias. The wide adoption of social networking services has pushed the possibilities even further by giving people the opportunity to stimulate the generation of answers that are not already present on the Internet. Some of these social media services are primarily community question answering (CQA) sites, while the others have a more general audience but can also be used to ask and answer questions. The choice of a particular platform (e.g., a CQA site, a microblogging service, or a search engine) by some user depends on several factors such as awareness of available resources and expectations from different platforms, and thus will sometimes be suboptimal. Hence, we introduce \emph{cross-platform question answering}, a framework that aims to improve our ability to satisfy complex information needs by returning answers from different platforms, including those where the question has not been originally asked. We propose to build this core capability by defining a general architecture for designing and implementing real-time services for answering naturally occurring questions. This architecture consists of four key components: (1) real-time detection of questions, (2) a set of platforms from which answers can be returned, (3) question processing by the selected answering systems, which optionally involves question transformation when questions are answered by services that enforce differing conventions from the original source, and (4) answer presentation, including ranking, merging, and deciding whether to return the answer. We demonstrate the feasibility of this general architecture by instantiating a restricted development version in which we collect the questions from one CQA website, one microblogging service or directly from the asker, and find answers from among some subset of those CQA and microblogging services. To enable the integration of new answering platforms in our architecture, we introduce a framework for automatic evaluation of their effectiveness

Biomedical Question Answering: A Survey of Approaches and Challenges

Automatic Question Answering (QA) has been successfully applied in various domains such as search engines and chatbots. Biomedical QA (BQA), as an emerging QA task, enables innovative applications to effectively perceive, access and understand complex biomedical knowledge. There have been tremendous developments of BQA in the past two decades, which we classify into 5 distinctive approaches: classic, information retrieval, machine reading comprehension, knowledge base and question entailment approaches. In this survey, we introduce available datasets and representative methods of each BQA approach in detail. Despite the developments, BQA systems are still immature and rarely used in real-life settings. We identify and characterize several key challenges in BQA that might lead to this issue, and discuss some potential future directions to explore.Comment: In submission to ACM Computing Survey

Biomedical semantic question and answering system

Tese de mestrado, Informática, Universidade de Lisboa, Faculdade de Ciências, 2017Os sistemas de Question Answering são excelentes ferramentas para a obtenção de respostas simples e em vários formatos de uma maneira tamb´em simples, sendo de grande utilidade na área de Information Retrieval, para responder a perguntas da comunidade online, e também para fins investigativos ou de prospeção de informação. A área da saúde tem beneficiado muito com estes avanços, auxiliados com o progresso da tecnologia e de ferramentas delas provenientes, que podem ser usadas nesta área, resultando na constante informatização destas áreas. Estes sistemas têm um grande potencial, uma vez que eles acedem a grandes conjuntos de dados estruturados e não estruturados, como por exemplo, a Web ou a grandes repositórios de informação provenientes de lá, de forma a obter as suas respostas, e no caso da comunidade de perguntas e respostas, fóruns online de perguntas e respostas em threads por temática. Os dados não estruturados fornecem um maior desafio, apesar dos dados estruturados de certa maneira limitar o leque de opções transformativas sobre os mesmos. A mesma disponibilização de tais conjuntos de dados de forma pública em formato digital oferecem uma maior liberdade para o público, e mais especificamente os investigadores das áreas específicas envolvidas com estes dados, permitindo uma fácil partilha das mesmas entre os vários interessados. De um modo geral, tais sistemas não estão disponíveis para reutilização pública, porque estão limitados ao campo da investigação, para provar conceitos de algoritmos específicos, são de difícil reutilização por parte de um público mais alargado, ou são ainda de difícil manutenção, pois rapidamente podem ficar desatualizados, principalmente nas tecnologias usadas, que podem deixar de ter suporte. O objetivo desta tese é desenvolver um sistema que colmate algumas destas falhas, promovendo a modularidade entre os módulos, o equilíbrio entre a implementação e a facilidade de utilização, desempenho dos sub-módulos, com o mínimo de pré-requisitos possíveis, tendo como resultado final um sistema de QA base adapaptado para um domínio de conhecimento. Tal sistema será constituído por subsistemas provados individualmente. Nesta tese, são descritobos vários tipos de sistemas, como os de prospecção de informação e os baseados em conhecimento, com enfoque em dois sistemas específicos desta área, o YodaQA e o OAQA. São apresentadas também várias ferramentas úteis e que são recorridas em vários destes sistemas que recorrem a técnicas de Text Classification, que vão desde o processamento de linguagem natural, ao Tokenizatioin, ao Part-of-speech tagging, como a exploração de técnicas de aprendizagem automática (Machine Learning) recorrendo a algoritmos supervisionados e não supervisionados, a semelhança textual (Pattern Matching) e semelhança semântica (Semantic Similarity). De uma forma geral, a partir destas técnicas é possível através de trechos de texto fornecidos, obter informação adicional acerca desses mesmos trechos. São ainda abordadas várias ferramentas que utilizam as técnicas descritas, como algumas de anotação, outras de semelhança semântica e ainda outras num contexto de organização, ordenação e pesquisa de grandes quantidades de informação de forma escaláveis que são úteis e utilizadas neste tipo de aplicações. Alguns dos principais conjuntos de dados são também descritos e abordados. A framework desenvolvida resultou em dois sistemas com uma arquitetura modular em pipeline, composta por módulos distintos consoante a tarefa desenvolvida. Estes módulos tinham bem definido os seus parâmetros de entrada como o que devolviam. O primeiro sistema tinha como entrada um conjunto de threads de perguntas e respostas em comentário e devolvia cada conjunto de dez comentários a uma pergunta ordenada e com um valor que condizia com a utilidade desse comentário para com a resposta. Este sistema denominou-se por MoRS e foi a prova de conceito modular do sistema final a desenvolver. O segundo sistema tem como entrada variadas perguntas da área da biomédica restrita a quatro tipos de pergunta, devolvendo as respectivas respostas, acompanhadas de metadata utilizada na análise dessa pergunta. Foram feitas algumas variações deste sistema, por forma a poder aferir se as escolhas de desenvolvimento iam sendo correctas, utilizando sempre a mesma framework (MoQA) e culminando com o sistema denominado MoQABio. Os principais módulos que compõem estes sistemas incluem, por ordem de uso, um módulo para o reconhecimento de entidades (também biomédicas), utilizando uma das ferramentas já investigadas no capítulo do trabalho relacionado. Também um módulo denominado de Combiner, em que a cada documento recolhido a partir do resultado do módulo anterior, são atribuídos os resultados de várias métricas, que servirão para treinar, no módulo seguinte, a partir da aplicação de algoritmos de aprendizagem automática de forma a gerar um modelo de reconhecimento baseado nestes casos. Após o treino deste modelo, será possível utilizar um classificador de bons e maus artigos. Os modelos foram gerados na sua maioria a partir de Support Vector Machine, havendo também a opção de utilização de Multi-layer Perceptron. Desta feita, dos artigos aprovados são retirados metadata, por forma a construir todo o resto da resposta, que incluia os conceitos, referencia dos documentos, e principais frases desses documentos. No módulo do sistema final do Combiner, existem avaliações que vão desde o já referido Pattern Matching, com medidas como o número de entidades em comum entre a questão e o artigo, de Semantic Similarity usando métricas providenciadas pelos autores da biblioteca Sematch, incluindo semelhança entre conceitos e entidades do DBpedia e outras medidas de semelhança semântica padrão, como Resnik ou Wu-Palmer. Outras métricas incluem o comprimento do artigo, uma métrica de semelhança entre duas frases e o tempo em milisegundos desse artigo. Apesar de terem sido desenvolvidos dois sistemas, as variações desenvolvidas a partir do MoQA, é que têm como pré-requisitos conjuntos de dados provenientes de várias fontes, entre elas o ficheiro de treino e teste de perguntas, o repositório PubMed, que tem inúmeros artigos científicos na área da biomédica, dos quais se vai retirar toda a informação utilizada para as respostas. Além destas fontes locais, existe o OPENphacts, que é externa, que fornecerá informação sobre várias expressões da área biomédica detectadas no primeiro módulo. No fim dos sistemas cujo ancestral foi o MoQA estarem prontos, é possível os utilizadores interagirem com este sistema através de uma aplicação web, a partir da qual, ao inserirem o tipo de resposta que pretendem e a pergunta que querem ver respondida, essa pergunta é passada pelo sistema e devolvida à aplicação web a resposta, e respectiva metadata. Ao investigar a metadata, é possível aceder à informação original. O WS4A participou no BioASQ de 2016, desenvolvida pela equipa ULisboa, o MoRS participou do SemEval Task 3 de 2017 e foi desenvolvida pelo pr´oprio, e por fim oMoQA da mesma autoria do segundo e cujo desempenho foi avaliado consoante os mesmos dados e métricas do WS4A. Enquanto que no caso do BioASQ, era abordado o desempenho de um sistema de Question Answering na àrea da biomédica, no SemEval era abordado um sistema de ordenação de comentários para com uma determinada pergunta, sendo os sistemas submetidos avaliados oficialmente usando as medidas como precision, recall e F-measure. De forma a comparar o impacto das características e ferramentas usadas em cada um dos modelos de aprendizagem automática construídos, estes foram comparados entre si, assim como a melhoria percentual entre os sistemas desenvolvidos ao longo do tempo. Além das avaliações oficiais, houve também avaliações locais que permitiram explorar ainda mais a progressão dos sistemas ao longo do tempo, incluindo os três sistemas desenvolvidos a partir do MoQA. Este trabalho apresenta um sistema que apesar de usar técnicas state of the art com algumas adaptações, conseguiu atingir uma melhoria desempenho relevante face ao seu predecessor e resultados equiparados aos melhores do ano da competição cujos dados utilizou, possuindo assim um grande potencial para atingir melhores resultados. Alguns dos seus contributos já vêm desde Fevereiro de 2016, com o WS4A [86], que participou no BioASQ 2016, com o passo seguinte no MoRS [85], que por sua vez participou no SemEval 2017, findando pelo MoQA, com grandes melhorias e disponível ao público em https://github.com/lasigeBioTM/MoQA. Como trabalho futuro, propõem-se sugestões, começando por melhorar a robustez do sistema, exploração adicional da metadata para melhor direcionar a pesquisa de respostas, a adição e exploração de novas características do modelo a desenvolver e a constante renovação de ferramentas utilizadas Também a incorporação de novas métricas fornecidas pelo Sematch, o melhoramento da formulação de queries feitas ao sistema são medidas a ter em atenção, dado que é preciso pesar o desempenho e o tempo de resposta a uma pergunta.Question Answering systems have been of great use and interest in our times. They are great tools for acquiring simple answers in a simple way, being of great utility in the area of information retrieval, and also for community question answering. Such systems have great potential, since they access large sets of data, for example from the Web, to acquire their answers, and in the case of community question answering, forums. Such systems are not available for public reuse because they are only limited for researching purposes or even proof-of-concept systems of specific algorithms, with researchers repeating over and over again the same r very similar modules frequently, thus not providing a larger public with a tool which could serve their purposes. When such systems are made available, are of cumbersome installation or configuration, which includes reading the documentation and depending on the researchers’ programming ability. In this thesis, the two best available systems in these situations, YodaQA and OAQA are described. A description of the main modules is given, with some sub-problems and hypothetical solutions, also described. Many systems, algorithms (i.e. learning, ranking) were also described. This work presents a modular system, MoQA (which is available at https:// github.com/lasigeBioTM/MoQA), that solves some of these problems by creating a framework that comes with a baseline QA system for general purpose local inquiry, but which is a highly modular system, built with individually proven subsystems, and using known tools such as Sematch, It is a descendant of WS4A [86] and MoRS [85], which took part in BioASQ 2016 (with recognition) and SemEval 2017 repectively. Machine Learning algorithms and Stanford Named Entity Recognition. Its purpose is to have a performance as high as possible while keeping the prerequisites, edition, and the ability to change such modules to the users’ wishes and researching purposes while providing an easy platform through which the final user may use such framework. MoQA had three variants, which were compared with each other, with MoQABio, with the best results among them, by using different tools than the other systems, focusing on the biomedical domain knowledge

Evaluating Information Retrieval and Access Tasks

This open access book summarizes the first two decades of the NII Testbeds and Community for Information access Research (NTCIR). NTCIR is a series of evaluation forums run by a global team of researchers and hosted by the National Institute of Informatics (NII), Japan. The book is unique in that it discusses not just what was done at NTCIR, but also how it was done and the impact it has achieved. For example, in some chapters the reader sees the early seeds of what eventually grew to be the search engines that provide access to content on the World Wide Web, today’s smartphones that can tailor what they show to the needs of their owners, and the smart speakers that enrich our lives at home and on the move. We also get glimpses into how new search engines can be built for mathematical formulae, or for the digital record of a lived human life. Key to the success of the NTCIR endeavor was early recognition that information access research is an empirical discipline and that evaluation therefore lay at the core of the enterprise. Evaluation is thus at the heart of each chapter in this book. They show, for example, how the recognition that some documents are more important than others has shaped thinking about evaluation design. The thirty-three contributors to this volume speak for the many hundreds of researchers from dozens of countries around the world who together shaped NTCIR as organizers and participants. This book is suitable for researchers, practitioners, and students—anyone who wants to learn about past and present evaluation efforts in information retrieval, information access, and natural language processing, as well as those who want to participate in an evaluation task or even to design and organize one

Neural Methods for Effective, Efficient, and Exposure-Aware Information Retrieval

Neural networks with deep architectures have demonstrated significant performance improvements in computer vision, speech recognition, and natural language processing. The challenges in information retrieval (IR), however, are different from these other application areas. A common form of IR involves ranking of documents--or short passages--in response to keyword-based queries. Effective IR systems must deal with query-document vocabulary mismatch problem, by modeling relationships between different query and document terms and how they indicate relevance. Models should also consider lexical matches when the query contains rare terms--such as a person's name or a product model number--not seen during training, and to avoid retrieving semantically related but irrelevant results. In many real-life IR tasks, the retrieval involves extremely large collections--such as the document index of a commercial Web search engine--containing billions of documents. Efficient IR methods should take advantage of specialized IR data structures, such as inverted index, to efficiently retrieve from large collections. Given an information need, the IR system also mediates how much exposure an information artifact receives by deciding whether it should be displayed, and where it should be positioned, among other results. Exposure-aware IR systems may optimize for additional objectives, besides relevance, such as parity of exposure for retrieved items and content publishers. In this thesis, we present novel neural architectures and methods motivated by the specific needs and challenges of IR tasks.Comment: PhD thesis, Univ College London (2020

Event summarization on social media stream: retrospective and prospective tweet summarization

Le contenu généré dans les médias sociaux comme Twitter permet aux utilisateurs d'avoir un aperçu rétrospectif d'évènement et de suivre les nouveaux développements dès qu'ils se produisent. Cependant, bien que Twitter soit une source d'information importante, il est caractérisé par le volume et la vélocité des informations publiées qui rendent difficile le suivi de l'évolution des évènements. Pour permettre de mieux tirer profit de ce nouveau vecteur d'information, deux tâches complémentaires de recherche d'information dans les médias sociaux ont été introduites : la génération de résumé rétrospectif qui vise à sélectionner les tweets pertinents et non redondant récapitulant "ce qui s'est passé" et l'envoi des notifications prospectives dès qu'une nouvelle information pertinente est détectée. Notre travail s'inscrit dans ce cadre. L'objectif de cette thèse est de faciliter le suivi d'événement, en fournissant des outils de génération de synthèse adaptés à ce vecteur d'information. Les défis majeurs sous-jacents à notre problématique découlent d'une part du volume, de la vélocité et de la variété des contenus publiés et, d'autre part, de la qualité des tweets qui peut varier d'une manière considérable. La tâche principale dans la notification prospective est l'identification en temps réel des tweets pertinents et non redondants. Le système peut choisir de retourner les nouveaux tweets dès leurs détections où bien de différer leur envoi afin de s'assurer de leur qualité. Dans ce contexte, nos contributions se situent à ces différents niveaux : Premièrement, nous introduisons Word Similarity Extended Boolean Model (WSEBM), un modèle d'estimation de la pertinence qui exploite la similarité entre les termes basée sur le word embedding et qui n'utilise pas les statistiques de flux. L'intuition sous- jacente à notre proposition est que la mesure de similarité à base de word embedding est capable de considérer des mots différents ayant la même sémantique ce qui permet de compenser le non-appariement des termes lors du calcul de la pertinence. Deuxièmement, l'estimation de nouveauté d'un tweet entrant est basée sur la comparaison de ses termes avec les termes des tweets déjà envoyés au lieu d'utiliser la comparaison tweet à tweet. Cette méthode offre un meilleur passage à l'échelle et permet de réduire le temps d'exécution. Troisièmement, pour contourner le problème du seuillage de pertinence, nous utilisons un classificateur binaire qui prédit la pertinence. L'approche proposée est basée sur l'apprentissage supervisé adaptatif dans laquelle les signes sociaux sont combinés avec les autres facteurs de pertinence dépendants de la requête. De plus, le retour des jugements de pertinence est exploité pour re-entrainer le modèle de classification. Enfin, nous montrons que l'approche proposée, qui envoie les notifications en temps réel, permet d'obtenir des performances prometteuses en termes de qualité (pertinence et nouveauté) avec une faible latence alors que les approches de l'état de l'art tendent à favoriser la qualité au détriment de la latence. Cette thèse explore également une nouvelle approche de génération du résumé rétrospectif qui suit un paradigme différent de la majorité des méthodes de l'état de l'art. Nous proposons de modéliser le processus de génération de synthèse sous forme d'un problème d'optimisation linéaire qui prend en compte la diversité temporelle des tweets. Les tweets sont filtrés et regroupés d'une manière incrémentale en deux partitions basées respectivement sur la similarité du contenu et le temps de publication. Nous formulons la génération du résumé comme étant un problème linéaire entier dans lequel les variables inconnues sont binaires, la fonction objective est à maximiser et les contraintes assurent qu'au maximum un tweet par cluster est sélectionné dans la limite de la longueur du résumé fixée préalablement.User-generated content on social media, such as Twitter, provides in many cases, the latest news before traditional media, which allows having a retrospective summary of events and being updated in a timely fashion whenever a new development occurs. However, social media, while being a valuable source of information, can be also overwhelming given the volume and the velocity of published information. To shield users from being overwhelmed by irrelevant and redundant posts, retrospective summarization and prospective notification (real-time summarization) were introduced as two complementary tasks of information seeking on document streams. The former aims to select a list of relevant and non-redundant tweets that capture "what happened". In the latter, systems monitor the live posts stream and push relevant and novel notifications as soon as possible. Our work falls within these frameworks and focuses on developing a tweet summarization approaches for the two aforementioned scenarios. It aims at providing summaries that capture the key aspects of the event of interest to help users to efficiently acquire information and follow the development of long ongoing events from social media. Nevertheless, tweet summarization task faces many challenges that stem from, on one hand, the high volume, the velocity and the variety of the published information and, on the other hand, the quality of tweets, which can vary significantly. In the prospective notification, the core task is the relevancy and the novelty detection in real-time. For timeliness, a system may choose to push new updates in real-time or may choose to trade timeliness for higher notification quality. Our contributions address these levels: First, we introduce Word Similarity Extended Boolean Model (WSEBM), a relevance model that does not rely on stream statistics and takes advantage of word embedding model. We used word similarity instead of the traditional weighting techniques. By doing this, we overcome the shortness and word mismatch issues in tweets. The intuition behind our proposition is that context-aware similarity measure in word2vec is able to consider different words with the same semantic meaning and hence allows offsetting the word mismatch issue when calculating the similarity between a tweet and a topic. Second, we propose to compute the novelty score of the incoming tweet regarding all words of tweets already pushed to the user instead of using the pairwise comparison. The proposed novelty detection method scales better and reduces the execution time, which fits real-time tweet filtering. Third, we propose an adaptive Learning to Filter approach that leverages social signals as well as query-dependent features. To overcome the issue of relevance threshold setting, we use a binary classifier that predicts the relevance of the incoming tweet. In addition, we show the gain that can be achieved by taking advantage of ongoing relevance feedback. Finally, we adopt a real-time push strategy and we show that the proposed approach achieves a promising performance in terms of quality (relevance and novelty) with low cost of latency whereas the state-of-the-art approaches tend to trade latency for higher quality. This thesis also explores a novel approach to generate a retrospective summary that follows a different paradigm than the majority of state-of-the-art methods. We consider the summary generation as an optimization problem that takes into account the topical and the temporal diversity. Tweets are filtered and are incrementally clustered in two cluster types, namely topical clusters based on content similarity and temporal clusters that depends on publication time. Summary generation is formulated as integer linear problem in which unknowns variables are binaries, the objective function is to be maximized and constraints ensure that at most one post per cluster is selected with respect to the defined summary length limit

ARCHITECTURE, MODELS, AND ALGORITHMS FOR TEXTUAL SIMILARITY

Identifying similar pieces of texts remains one of the fundamental problems in computational linguistics. This dissertation focuses on the textual similarity measurement and identification problem by studying a variety of major tasks that share common properties, and presents our efforts to address 7 closely-related similarity tasks given over 20 public benchmarks, including paraphrase identification, answer selection for question answering, pairwise learning to rank, monolingual/cross-lingual semantic textual similarity measurement, insight extraction on biomedical literature, and high performance cross-lingual pattern matching for machine translation on GPUs. We investigate how to make textual similarity measurement more accurate with deep neural networks. Traditional approaches are either based on feature engineering which leads to disconnected solutions, or the Siamese architecture which treats inputs independently, utilizes single representation view and straightforward similarity comparison. In contrast, we focus on modeling stronger interactions between inputs and develop interaction-based neural modeling that explicitly encodes the alignments of input words or aggregated sentence representations into our models. As a result, our multiple deep neural networks show highly competitive performance on many textual similarity measurement public benchmarks we evaluated. Our multi-perspective convolutional neural networks (MPCNN) uses a multiplicity of perspectives to process input sentences with multiple parallel convolutional neural networks, is able to extract salient sentence-level features automatically at multiple granularities with different types of pooling. Our novel structured similarity layer encourages stronger input interactions by comparing local regions of both sentence representations. This model is the first example of our interaction-based neural modeling. We also provide an attention-based input interaction layer on top of the MPCNN model. The input interaction layer models a closer relationship of input words by converting two separate sentences into an inter-related sentence pair. This layer utilizes the attention mechanism in a straightforward way, and is another example of our interaction-based neural modeling. We then provide our pairwise word interaction model with very deep neural networks (PWI). This model directly encodes input word interactions with novel pairwise word interaction modeling and a novel similarity focus layer. The use of very deep architecture in this model is the first example in NLP domain for better textual similarity modeling. Our PWI model outperforms the Siamese architecture and feature engineering approach on multiple tasks, and is another example of our interaction-based neural modeling. We also focus on the question answering task with a pairwise ranking approach. Unlike traditional pointwise approach of the task, our pairwise ranking approach with the use of negative sampling focuses on modeling interactions between two pairs of question and answer inputs, then learns a relative order of the pairs to predict which answer is more relevant to the question. We demonstrate its high effectiveness against competitive previous pointwise baselines. For the insight extraction on biomedical literature task, we develop neural networks with similarity modeling for better causality/correlation relation extraction, as we convert the extraction task into a similarity measurement task. Our approach innovates in that it explicitly models the interactions among the trio: named entities, entity relations and contexts, and then measures both relational and contextual similarity among them, finally integrate both similarity evaluations into considerations for insight extraction. We also build an end-to-end system to extract insights, with human evaluations we show our system is able to extract insights with high human acceptance accuracy. Lastly, we explore how to exploit massive parallelism offered by modern GPUs for high-efficiency pattern matching. We take advantage of GPU hardware advances and develop a massive parallelism approach. We firstly work on phrase-based SMT, where we enable phrase lookup and extraction on suffix arrays to be massively parallelized and vastly many queries to be carried out in parallel. We then work on computationally expensive hierarchical SMT model, which requires matching grammar patterns that contain ''gaps''. In order to get high efficiency for the similarity identification task on GPUs, we show developing massively parallel algorithms on GPUs is the most important approach to fully utilize GPU's raw processing power, and developing compact data structures on GPUs is helpful to lower GPU's memory latency. Compared to a highly-optimized, state-of-the-art multi-threaded CPU implementation, our techniques achieve orders of magnitude improvement in terms of throughput

Evaluating Large Language Models: A Comprehensive Survey

Large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable capabilities across a broad spectrum of tasks. They have attracted significant attention and been deployed in numerous downstream applications. Nevertheless, akin to a double-edged sword, LLMs also present potential risks. They could suffer from private data leaks or yield inappropriate, harmful, or misleading content. Additionally, the rapid progress of LLMs raises concerns about the potential emergence of superintelligent systems without adequate safeguards. To effectively capitalize on LLM capacities as well as ensure their safe and beneficial development, it is critical to conduct a rigorous and comprehensive evaluation of LLMs. This survey endeavors to offer a panoramic perspective on the evaluation of LLMs. We categorize the evaluation of LLMs into three major groups: knowledge and capability evaluation, alignment evaluation and safety evaluation. In addition to the comprehensive review on the evaluation methodologies and benchmarks on these three aspects, we collate a compendium of evaluations pertaining to LLMs' performance in specialized domains, and discuss the construction of comprehensive evaluation platforms that cover LLM evaluations on capabilities, alignment, safety, and applicability. We hope that this comprehensive overview will stimulate further research interests in the evaluation of LLMs, with the ultimate goal of making evaluation serve as a cornerstone in guiding the responsible development of LLMs. We envision that this will channel their evolution into a direction that maximizes societal benefit while minimizing potential risks. A curated list of related papers has been publicly available at https://github.com/tjunlp-lab/Awesome-LLMs-Evaluation-Papers.Comment: 111 page