Contributions of Human Prefrontal Cortex to the Recogitation of Thought

Human beings have a unique ability to not only verbally articulate past and present experiences, as well as potential future ones, but also evaluate the mental representations of such things. Some evaluations do little good, in that they poorly reflect facts, create needless emotional distress, and contribute to the obstruction of personal goals, whereas some evaluations are the converse: They are grounded in logic, empiricism, and pragmatism and, therefore, are functional rather than dysfunctional. The aim of non-pharmacological mental health interventions is to revise dysfunctional thoughts into more adaptive, healthier ones; however, the neurocognitive mechanisms driving cognitive change have hitherto remained unclear. Therefore, this thesis examines the role of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) in this aspect of human higher cognition using the relatively new method of functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Chapter 1 advances recogitation as the mental ability on which cognitive restructuring largely depends, concluding that, as a cognitive task, it is a form of open-ended human problem-solving that uses metacognitive and reasoning faculties. Because these faculties share similar executive resources, Chapter 2 discusses the systems in the brain involved in controlled information processing, specifically the nature of executive functions and their neural bases. Chapter 3 builds on these ideas to propose an information-processing model of recogitation, which predicts the roles of different subsystems localized within the PFC and elsewhere in the context of emotion regulation. This chapter also highlights several theoretical and empirical challenges to investigating this neurocognitive theory and proposes some solutions, such as to use experimental designs that are more ecologically valid. Chapter 4 focuses on a neuroimaging method that is best suited to investigating questions of spatial localization in ecological experiments, namely functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Chapter 5 then demonstrates a novel approach to investigating the neural bases of interpersonal interactions in clinical settings using fNIRS. Chapter 6 explores physical activity as a ‘bottom-up’ approach to upregulating the PFC, in that it might help clinical populations with executive deficits to regulate their mental health from the ‘top-down’. Chapter 7 addresses some of the methodological issues of investigating clinical interactions and physical activity in more naturalistic settings by assessing an approach to recovering functional events from observed brain data. Chapter 8 draws several conclusions about the role of the PFC in improving psychological as well as physiological well-being, particularly that rostral PFC is inextricably involved in the cognitive effort to modulate dysfunctional thoughts, and proposes some important future directions for ecological research in cognitive neuroscience; for example, psychotherapy is perhaps too physically stagnant, so integrating exercise into treatment environments might boost the effectiveness of intervention strategies

Multimodal Diffuse Optical Imaging Evidence of Age-Related Changes in Neural Substrates of Semantic Words Processing

RÉSUMÉ Le vieillissement rapide de la population au Canada changera les aspects démographiques à l’avenir par le fait que les personnes âgées de 65 ans et plus vont dépasser en volume les jeunes de moins de 20 ans. En sachant les coûts associés au traitement et au soutien des personnes âgées atteintes par une ou plusieurs démences cognitives, on admet l’importance des études gériatriques pour mieux comprendre les mécanismes neurophysiologiques du vieillissement. L’intérêt principal est de trouver un lien entre les effets neurologiques du vieillissement et ceux du déclin cognitif afin d’établir des stratégies qui encourageront un vieillissement en santé. Notre compréhension du cerveau a beaucoup évolué au cours des dernières décennies grâce à de nouvelles techniques en imagerie cérébrale. Pourtant, l’interprétation de ces données reste un défi. Dans le cas de l’imagerie fonctionnelle par résonance magnétique (IRM) ou par optique diffuse (IOD), la réponse neuronale est indirectement dérivée de l’hémodynamique. Cette dernière est sujette à de complexes interactions entre l’oxygénation du cerveau, le volume et le débit sanguin, ainsi que la structure hétérogène du cortex. Ces interactions rendent difficile une interprétation quantitative des données. Dans le cas des études en vieillissement cognitif, ces paramètres sont de plus modifiés par l’âge, ce qui mène à une importante variabilité interindividuelle dans l’interprétation des données. La caractérisation des effets neurophysiologiques du vieillissement sur les signaux d’imagerie cérébrale est donc essentielle pour permettre des études rigoureuses du déclin cognitif avec l’âge. Vu les limites en rapport avec les signaux intrinsèques de chacune des modalités d’imagerie non-invasive, l’intérêt pour les études multimodales s’accroît car elles permettent de calibrer avec plus de précision les données fonctionnelles. L’intégration des données complémentaires acquises via différentes modalités de neuroimagerie, dans cette étude, nous a permis de quantifier les activations neuronales et de surveiller leurs modifications reliées au vieillissement. Un montage de spectroscopie en temps résolu, fait au laboratoire, nous a fourni des données au repos sur la concentration en oxy- et déoxyhémoglobine, ainsi que sur le volume sanguin. En imagerie par résonance magnétique, une séquence anatomique nous a servi à 1) évaluer une potentielle corrélation entre l’épaisseur corticale (matières grise et blanche) et le niveau de la réponse hémodynamique et 2) Recaller la carte d’activité cérébrale de chaque participant sur son image anatomique. On rajoute ces dernières mesures comme régresseur à un modèle linéaire généralisé de la réponse hémodynamique. En faisant l’hypothèse que ces changements de bases sont liés à la physiologie,----------ABSTRACT The demographic features of the population of Canada will experience an unprecedented historical change in the near future by the number of individuals above 65 years surpassing the number of youngsters under 20 years. Considering the costly consequences of age-related cognitive decline, both for individuals and the society, studying the neurophysiological mechanisms of these unfavorable changes has become an utmost priority in health research. The main goal of this field is to link the effects of cerebral aging to those of cognitive aging in order to stablish strategies promoting healthy aging. Normal cerebral aging is accompanied by some neurophysiological and neuroanatomical alterations depending on epigenetics of individuals. Amongst neurophysiological deteriorations causing cognitive decline, one should account for the neural loss, cortical density reduction, neurovascular, metabolic, and neurotransmission dysfunctions. Taken together these alterations with age, we were interested to determine whether older adults are affected in their cognitive abilities by more than one simple factor. In another word, we aimed at exploring the potential relationship between the abovementioned age-related alterations with cognitive performance. However, the main challenge of such study appears when interpreting functional data regarding baseline measures of each individual. Thus, the increased inter and intra-individual variability in cognitive studies is mainly due to their large variations in structural and neurophysiological characteristics in the course of their lifespan. In this project, we defined a multi-modal neuroimaging protocol with the aim of calibrating the functional measures of task-related activity by measured individual baseline neurophysiological characteristics. To assess individuals` cerebral blood flow at rest, one of the constituent of hemodynamic response, we used an arterial-spin labeling sequence of magnetic resonance imaging. This technique based on tagging water in blood, gives the blood quantity emerging to brain. Carotids, the main arterial vessels that supply blood to brain, neck and face, are well known to be affected by age inter-individually and play as a non-functional moderator in hemodynamic response formation. As an estimate of total blood volume and baseline concentration of oxy- and deoxyhaemoglobin, we used a home-made 4-chanel time resolution optical device to acquire data from each participant’s prefrontal lobe. To refine the spatial resolution of non-invasive optical imaging, we also acquired anatomical MR images of each participant to 1) calculate cortical thickness with the objective of evaluating the correlatio

An assessment of cortical function in expert and novice surgeons

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Refined electrophysiological recording and processing of neural signals from the retina and ascending visual pathways

The purpose of this thesis was the development of refined methods for recording and processing of neural signals of the retina and ascending visual pathways. The first chapter describes briefly the fundamentals of the human visual system and the basics of the functional testing of the retina and the visual pathways. The second and third chapters are dedicated to the processing of visual electrophysiological data using the newly developed software ERG Explorer, and present a proposal for an open and standardized data format, ElVisML, for future proof storage of visual electrophysiological data. The fourth chapter describes the development and application of two novel electrodes: First a contact lens electrode for the recording of electrical potentials of the ciliary muscle during accommodation, and second, the marble electrode, which is made of a super-absorbant polymer and allows for a preparation-free recording of visual evoked potentials. Results obtained in studies using the both electrodes are presented. The fifths and last chapter of the thesis presents the results from four studies within the field of visual electrophysiology. The first study examines the ophthalmological assessment of cannabis-induced perception disorder using electrophysiological methods. The second study presents a refined method for the objective assessment of the visual acuity using visual evoked potentials and introduces therefore, a refined stimulus paradigm and a novel method for the analysis of the sweep VEP. The third study presents the results of a newly developed stimulus design for full-field electrophysiology, which allows to assess previously non-recordable electroretinograms. The last study describes a relation of the spatial frequency of a visual stimulus to the amplitudes of visual evoked potentials in comparison to the BOLD response obtained using functional near-infrared spectroscopy and functional magnetic resonance imaging

Assessing brain activity related to speech production and perception using tonal stimuli

Speech processing was studied by looking at brain processes underlying speech perception and production. Existing models of speech and empirical data propose that producing speech decreases neural activity relative to perceiving speech (termed Speech-Induced Suppression - SIS). SIS is associated with monitoring the intended auditory targets against perceived speech output. SIS has been frequently reported at cortical levels but not at subcortical levels. If SIS occurs at subcortical levels, then speech processing models would be expanded to incorporate these in the internal sensory prediction (i.e. the intended auditory targets). Auditory tonal stimuli were used in this thesis. Such stimuli are commonly used in research on subcortical activity during speech perception. Knowing what the benchmark response (i.e. subcortical activity to tones in speech perception) looks like, allows us to compare our findings made during speech production to speech perception research. The first four studies recorded cortical activity using EEG, a common method in studying SIS. The same experimental conditions were used across the studies to facilitate comparison. The results showed a large variation in the magnitude and direction of the SIS effect across conditions and experiments. Even though mean amplitudes appeared to indicate than the cortical activity was indeed suppressed in some cases, when the random effects were controlled for using linear mixed models, the suppression was not significant. A potential explanation of this result might be that the alien voice auditory stimuli played during the experimental tasks were not recognised as one’s own. This mismatch would preclude occurrence of SIS. SIS was tested for the first time using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) using the same experimental conditions that were used in the EEG studies. The suppression of the fNIRS signal (HbO peaks) was not significant. However, the haemoglobin concentration plots suggested that the responses to conditions that involved vocalisation differed from those that did not. This thesis also describes attempts at recording subcortical responses (FFR) during speech production. SIS has been reported at the brainstem level in the past (Papanicolaou, Raz, Loring, & Eisenberg, 1986) but this required further exploration because of procedural issues in the study. Recording FFRs during vocalisation was attempted here to test whether subcortical activity is suppressed. This required the development of a processing pipeline to extract clean signals (FFR) from brainstem recordings during speech production. Recording FFRs during speech production turned out to be very challenging. Methodological improvements introduced in the later experiments improved signal quality but it was far from the standard achieved during speech perception. Combining these two strands of research, i.e. SIS on cortical and subcortical level, led to methodological improvements. The main theoretical contribution of the thesis is the finding that SIS cannot be consistently observed when an external audio stimulus is presented whilst speech production occurs concurrently. This result agrees with a previous finding which described that less prototypical speech sounds are less suppressed (Niziolek, Nagarajan, & Houde, 2013). These results support speech models which postulate that suppression is due to matching predicted and perceived feedback

Learning to regulate homeostatic brain networks

Eine dynamische Balance der physiologischen Gegebenheiten wie Körpertemperatur, Blutdruck, Blut-PH-Wert, Hormonspiegel, Blutzucker und Insulinkonzentration ist für die Gesundheit und das Überleben unverzichtbar. Viele Krankheiten haben eine Störung der Homöostase zur Folge. Vor allem das Nerven- und das Hormonsystem steuern Regulationsmechanismen und sobald diese ein Ungleichgewicht feststellen, gibt es passende biochemische oder physiologische Feedback-Kreisläufe, die den Gesamtzustand in die Balance zurückführen. Diese Dissertation untersucht neuartige Methoden des Echtzeit-Neurofeedbacks, das auf funktioneller Magnetre-sonanztomographie basiert (Real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging – rt-fMRI-NF), um es gesunden Probanden und Patienten zu ermöglichen, homöostatische Netzwerke des Gehirns zu regulieren. Die erste Studie hatte zum Ziel, die Auswirkungen der Hochregulierung der funktionellen Konnektivität durch rt-fMRI-NF-Training (engl. Functional connectivity – FC) zwischen Beloh-nungs- und impulsivitätsregulierenden Gehirnarealen auf das Essverhalten zu untersuchen. Diese Studie war ein Pilotexperiment im Pre-Post-Schema. Die zweite Studie untersuchte die Möglichkeit, die funktionelle Konnektivität zwischen der anterioren Insula (AIC) und dem soma-tosensorischen Kortex (SC) durch Belohnung von gleichzeitiger Aktivität dieser Regionen zu be-einflussen. AIC und SC sind Gehirnregionen, die physiologische Zustandsinformationen von Kör-pergewebe und großflächigen Hautsegmenten erhalten. Wir nahmen an, dass die funktionelle Verbindung zwischen diesen Regionen die Verarbeitung dieser Signale der inneren Organe und Körpergewebe übernimmt. Dies stellt einen Kernbereich des Gefühlskonzeptes von James-Lang dar. In der dritten Studie untersuchten wir, ob Patienten mit kontaminationsbezogenen Zwangsgedanken und Waschzwang lernen können, ihre BOLD-Aktivität in der Insula herunterzu-regulieren, wenn sie mit ekelerregenden oder Angst hervorrufenden Stimuli konfrontiert wer-den. Die Ergebnisse der ersten Studie zeigten, dass die willentliche Hochregulierung der Korrela-tion zu einer erhöhten funktionellen Konnektivität zwischen dem dorsolateralen präfrontalen Kortex (dlPFC) und dem ventromedialen präfrontalen Kortex (vmPFC) führt. Diese Konnektivität betrifft Selbstkontrolle und die Entscheidung für gesunde Nahrungsmittel. Die Verhaltenstests deuten darauf hin, dass die Probanden sich in der Transfersitzung (nach der Intervention) für weniger ungesunde Nahrungsmittel entscheiden als in der Sitzung vor der Intervention. Die zweite Studie bestätigte unsere Hypothese, dass die willentliche Hochregulierung von gleichzei-tiger BOLD-Aktivität von AIC und SC deren funktionale Konnektivität erhöht. Diese Verbindung ermöglicht eine verstärkte Körperwahrnehmung und ein verändertes subjektives Gefühlserle-ben. Wir beobachteten, dass die Veränderung der funktionellen Konnektivität zwischen AIC und SC die Leistung der Probanden in der Aufgabe (Wahrnehmung des Herzschlags) verbesserte. In der dritten Studie fanden wir heraus, dass Patienten mit Zwangsstörungen (OCD) nach einigen Trainingseinheiten die Selbstkontrolle der BOLD-Aktivität der Insula erreichen konnten. Fasst man die Ergebnisse der drei Studien zusammen, konnten wir zeigen, dass die Fähigkeit des Ge-hirns zur homöostatischen Selbstregulierung durch die Verwendung von rt-FMRI-Training ver-bessert werden kann. Zudem ist nun klarer, dass die Veränderung und die Modulation von neu-ronalen Pfaden in Gehirnnetzwerken, die der Selbstkontrolle, der Entscheidungsfindung und der Gefühlswahrnehmung zugrunde liegen, zu vielversprechenden Verhaltensveränderungen führt

Semantic radical consistency and character transparency effects in Chinese: an ERP study

BACKGROUND: This event-related potential (ERP) study aims to investigate the representation and temporal dynamics of Chinese orthography-to-semantics mappings by simultaneously manipulating character transparency and semantic radical consistency. Character components, referred to as radicals, make up the building blocks used dur...postprin

Muscle activation patterns in shoulder impingement patients

Introduction: Shoulder impingement is one of the most common presentations of shoulder joint problems 1. It appears to be caused by a reduction in the sub-acromial space as the humerus abducts between 60o -120o – the 'painful arc'. Structures between the humeral head and the acromion are thus pinched causing pain and further pathology 2. Shoulder muscle activity can influence this joint space but it is unclear whether this is a cause or effect in impingement patients. This study aimed to observe muscle activation patterns in normal and impingement shoulder patients and determine if there were any significant differences. Method: 19 adult subjects were asked to perform shoulder abduction in their symptomatic arm and non-symptomatic. 10 of these subjects (age 47.9 ± 11.2) were screened for shoulder impingement, and 9 subjects (age 38.9 ± 14.3) had no history of shoulder pathology. Surface EMG was used to collect data for 6 shoulder muscles (Upper, middle and lower trapezius, serratus anterior, infraspinatus, middle deltoids) which was then filtered and fully rectified. Subjects performed 3 smooth unilateral abduction movements at a cadence of 16 beats of a metronome set at 60bpm, and the mean of their results was recorded. T-tests were used to indicate any statistical significance in the data sets. Significance was set at P<0.05. Results: There was a significant difference in muscle activation with serratus anterior in particular showing a very low level of activation throughout the range when compared to normal shoulder activation patterns (<30%). Middle deltoid recruitment was significantly reduced between 60-90o in the impingement group (30:58%).Trends were noted in other muscles with upper trapezius and infraspinatus activating more rapidly and erratically (63:25%; 60:27% respectively), and lower trapezius with less recruitment (13:30%) in the patient group, although these did not quite reach significance. Conclusion: There appears to be some interesting alterations in muscle recruitment patterns in impingement shoulder patients when compared against their own unaffected shoulders and the control group. In particular changes in scapula control (serratus anterior and trapezius) and lateral rotation (infraspinatus), which have direct influence on the sub-acromial space, should be noted. It is still not clear whether these alterations are causative or reactionary, but this finding gives a clear indication to the importance of addressing muscle reeducation as part of a rehabilitation programme in shoulder impingement patients

Neural foundations of cooperative social interactions

The embodied-embedded-enactive-extended (4E) approach to study cognition suggests that interaction with the world is a crucial component of our cognitive processes. Most of our time, we interact with other people. Therefore, studying cognition without interaction is incomplete. Until recently, social neuroscience has only focused on studying isolated human and animal brains, leaving interaction unexplored. To fill this gap, we studied interacting participants, focusing on both intra- and inter-brain (hyperscanning) neural activity. In the first study, we invited dyads to perform a visual task in both a cooperative and a competitive context while we measured EEG. We found that mid-frontal activity around 200-300 ms after receiving monetary rewards was sensitive to social context and differed between cooperative and competitive situations. In the second study, we asked participants to coordinate their movements with each other and with a robotic partner. We found significantly stronger EEG amplitudes at frontocentral electrodes when people interacted with a robotic partner. Lastly, we performed a comprehensive literature review and the first meta-analysis in the emerging field of hyperscanning that validated it as a method to study social interaction. Taken together, our results showed that adding a second participant (human or AI/robotic) fostered our understanding of human cognition. We learned that the activity at frontocentral electrodes is sensitive to social context and type of partner (human or robotic). In both studies, the participants’ interaction was required to show these novel neural processes involved in action monitoring. Similarly, studying inter-brain neural activity allows for the exploration of new aspects of cognition. Many cognitive functions involved in successful social interactions are accompanied by neural synchrony between brains, suggesting the extended form of our cognition