Performance, Characteristics, and Error Rates of Cursor Control Devices for Aircraft Cockpit Interaction

This document is the Accepted Manuscript version of the following article: Peter R. Thomas, 'Performance, Characteristics, and Error Rates of Cursor Control Devices for Aircraft Cockpit Interaction', International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, Vol. 109: 41-53, available online 31 August 2017. Under embargo. Embargo end date: 31 August 2018. Published by Elsevier. © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.This paper provides a comparative performance analysis of a hands-on-throttle-and-stick (HOTAS) cursor control device (CCD) with other suitable CCDs for an aircraft cockpit: an isotonic thumbstick, a trackpad, a trackball, and touchscreen input. The performance and characteristics of these five CCDs were investigated in terms of throughput, movement accuracy, and error rate using the ISO 9241-9 standard task. Results show statistically significant differences (p < 0.001) between three groupings of the devices, with the HOTAS having the lowest throughput (0.7 bits/s) and the touchscreen the highest (3.7 bits/s). Errors for all devices were shown to increase with decreasing target size (p < 0.001) and, to a lesser effect, increasing target distance (p < 0.01). The trackpad was found to be the most accurate of the five devices, being significantly better than the HOTAS fingerstick and touchscreen (p < 0.05) with the touchscreen performing poorly on selecting smaller targets (p < 0.05). These results would be useful to cockpit human-machine interface designers and provides evidence of the need to move away from, or significantly augment the capabilities of, this type of HOTAS CCD in order to improve pilot task throughput in increasingly data-rich cockpits.Peer reviewedFinal Accepted Versio

Survey of Human Models for Verification of Human-Machine Systems

We survey the landscape of human operator modeling ranging from the early cognitive models developed in artificial intelligence to more recent formal task models developed for model-checking of human machine interactions. We review human performance modeling and human factors studies in the context of aviation, and models of how the pilot interacts with automation in the cockpit. The purpose of the survey is to assess the applicability of available state-of-the-art models of the human operators for the design, verification and validation of future safety-critical aviation systems that exhibit higher-level of autonomy, but still require human operators in the loop. These systems include the single-pilot aircraft and NextGen air traffic management. We discuss the gaps in existing models and propose future research to address them

Classification and reduction of pilot error

Human error is a primary or contributing factor in about two-thirds of commercial aviation accidents worldwide. With the ultimate goal of reducing pilot error accidents, this contract effort is aimed at understanding the factors underlying error events and reducing the probability of certain types of errors by modifying underlying factors such as flight deck design and procedures. A review of the literature relevant to error classification was conducted. Classification includes categorizing types of errors, the information processing mechanisms and factors underlying them, and identifying factor-mechanism-error relationships. The classification scheme developed by Jens Rasmussen was adopted because it provided a comprehensive yet basic error classification shell or structure that could easily accommodate addition of details on domain-specific factors. For these purposes, factors specific to the aviation environment were incorporated. Hypotheses concerning the relationship of a small number of underlying factors, information processing mechanisms, and error types types identified in the classification scheme were formulated. ASRS data were reviewed and a simulation experiment was performed to evaluate and quantify the hypotheses

A review of US Army aircrew-aircraft integration research programs

If the U.S. Army's desire to develop a one crew version of the Light Helicopter Family (LHX) helicopter is to be realized, both flightpath management and mission management will have to be performed by one crew. Flightpath management, the helicopter pilot, and the handling qualities of the helicopter were discussed. In addition, mission management, the helicopter pilot, and pilot control/display interface were considered. Aircrew-aircraft integration plans and programs were reviewed

Mixed method approach in designing flight decks with touch screens: a framework

Touch screen technology’s first public appearance was in the early 2000s. Touch screens became a part of the daily life with the invention of smartphones and tablets. Now, this technology has the potential to be the next big change in flight deck design. To date, mobile devices are deployed by several air carriers to perform a host of non-safety critical pre-flight and in-flight tasks. Due to high safety requirements requested by authorities, new technologies cannot be adopted as fast as in other settings. Flight deck evolution, which is briefly presented in this paper, is reflecting this natural time delay. Avionics manufacturers are exploring and working on future concepts with touch screen displays. This paper investigates the potential benefits and challenges of touch screen technology on flight decks by means of a variety of qualitative and quantitative research methods (mixed method approach). On the basis of this, a framework was constructed showing the relation between various aspects that could impact the usability of touch screens on the flight deck. This paper concludes with a preliminary questionnaire that can help avionic designers to evaluate whether a touch screen is an appropriate user interface for their system

Twentieth Annual Conference on Manual Control, Volume 1

The 48 papers presented were devoted to humanopeator modeling, application of models to simulation and operational environments, aircraft handling qualities, teleopertors, fault diagnosis, and biodynamics

Technical approaches for measurement of human errors

Human error is a significant contributing factor in a very high proportion of civil transport, general aviation, and rotorcraft accidents. The technical details of a variety of proven approaches for the measurement of human errors in the context of the national airspace system are presented. Unobtrusive measurements suitable for cockpit operations and procedures in part of full mission simulation are emphasized. Procedure, system performance, and human operator centered measurements are discussed as they apply to the manual control, communication, supervisory, and monitoring tasks which are relevant to aviation operations

An Agent Based Model to Assess Crew Temporal Variability During U.S. Navy Shipboard Operations

Understanding the factors that affect human performance variability as well as their temporal impacts is an essential element in fully integrating and designing complex, adaptive environments. This understanding is particularly necessary for high stakes, time-critical routines such as those performed during nuclear reactor, air traffic control, and military operations. Over the last three decades significant efforts have emerged to demonstrate and apply a host of techniques to include Discrete Event Simulation, Bayesian Belief Networks, Neural Networks, and a multitude of existing software applications to provide relevant assessments of human task performance and temporal variability. The objective of this research was to design and develop a novel Agent Based Modeling and Simulation (ABMS) methodology to generate a timeline of work and assess impacts of crew temporal variability during U.S. Navy Small Boat Defense operations in littoral waters. The developed ABMS methodology included human performance models for six crew members (agents) as well as a threat craft, and incorporated varying levels of crew capability and task support. AnyLogic ABMS software was used to simultaneously provide detailed measures of individual sailor performance and of system-level emergent behavior. This methodology and these models were adapted and built to assure extensibility across a broad range of U.S. Navy shipboard operations. Application of the developed ABMS methodology effectively demonstrated a way to visualize and quantify impacts/uncertainties of human temporal variability on both workload and crew effectiveness during U.S. Navy shipboard operations

Exploring potential benefits and challenges of touch screens on the flight deck

As the avionics industry is seeking to introduce touch screens into most flight decks, it is vital to understand the interactional challenges and benefits of doing so. The potential benefits and challenges of touch screen technology on flight decks was investigated by means of a variety of qualitative and quantitative research methods (mixed methods approach). A number of research questions are addressed, which have been iteratively developed from the literature, interviews with avionics experts and pilots. This work presents one field study, two lab studies, one observational study, one simulation study and one comparative user study, all investigating various factors/variables that could affect touch screen usability on the flight deck. The first field study investigated interactive displays on the flight deck with search and rescue (SAR) crew members in an operational setting in helicopters. This was the first in-flight experiment where touch screens were evaluated under real conditions. The results showed the impact of target size, device placement and in-flight vibration on targeting accuracy and performance. Presented statistical analyses and observations are essential to understand how to design effective touch screen interfaces for the flight deck. One of the lab studies evaluated (more in depth) the potential impact of display position of touch screens within a simulated cockpit. This was the first experiment that investigated the impact of various display positions on performance following Fitts’ Law experiment. Results revealed that display location has a significant impact on touch screen usability. Qualitative findings from semi-structured interviews and post-experiment questionnaires supported the understanding of interactional issues on a flight deck environment which extended initial design guidelines. Pilots brought attention to the impact of increased G-force (+Gz) as an additional environmental factor that might affect touch screen usability on agile aircrafts. Therefore, a Fitts’ law experiment was conducted to understand the effect of +Gz on touch screen usability. +Gz conditions were simulated with a weight-adjustable wristband, which was the first approach to simulate increased G-force in lab environment. Empirical results and subjective ratings showed a large impact of +Gz on performance and fatigue indices. An observational study focused on Electronic Flight Bag (EFB) (mobile device) usage on the specific domain of Search and Rescue (SAR) helicopters. The novelty in this study was the focus group in which the aim was to find features, content and functionality that a SAR pilot may wish to see in an EFB. From operational observations and interviews with pilot’s operational requirements were defined. A Digital Human Modelling Software was used to define physical constraints of an EFB and develop interface design guidelines. A scenario and virtual prototype was created and presented to pilots. A new way of interaction to manipulate radio frequencies of avionics systems was developed based on findings achieved in this work and other relevant studies. A usability experiment simulating departures and approaches to airports was used to evaluate the interface and compare it with the current system (Flight Management System). In addition, interviews with pilots were conducted to find out their personal impressions and to reveal problem areas of the interface. Analyses of task completion time and error rates showed that the touch interface is significantly faster and less prone to user input errors than the conventional input method (via physical or virtual keypad). Potential problem areas were identified and an improved interface is suggested. Overall, the main contribution of this research is a framework showing the relation between various aspects that could impact the usability of touch screens on the flight deck. Furthermore, design guidelines were developed that should support the usability of interactive displays on the flight deck. This work concludes with a preliminary questionnaire that can help avionic designers to evaluate whether a touch screen is an appropriate user interface for their system