The sources of self-efficacy: Educational research and implications for music

Music teachers can empower students with control over their own music ability development by helping them foster positive self-efficacy beliefs. This article reviews general education and music research concerning Bandura’s theoretical four sources of self-efficacy (enactive mastery experience, vicarious experience, verbal/social persuasion, and physiological and affective states), in order to guide music teachers in determining effective methods and approaches to help students develop a sense of music self-efficacy and subsequent music achievement. A brief summary of each self-efficacy source category is provided, along with a discussion of the means whereby self-efficacy perceptions can be developed within both general education and music learning environments. Each of these four sections reviews research and simultaneously provides corresponding practical suggestions for educators

Playing with Cases: Rendering Expressive Music with Case-Based Reasoning

This article surveys long-term research on the problem of rendering expressive music by means of AI techniques with an emphasis on case-based reasoning (CBR). Following a brief overview discussing why people prefer listening to expressive music instead of nonexpressive synthesized music, we examine a representative selection of well-known approaches to expressive computer,music performance with an emphasis on AI-related approaches. In the main part of the article we focus on the existing CBR approaches to the problem of synthesizing expressive music, and particularly on Tempo-Express, a case-based reasoning system developed at our Institute, for applying musically acceptable tempo transformations to monophonic audio recordings of musical performances. Finally we briefly describe an ongoing extension of our previous work consisting of complementing audio information with information about the gestures of the musician. Music is played through our bodies, therefore capturing the gesture of the performer is a fundamental aspect that has to be taken into account in future expressive music renderings. This article is based on the >2011 Robert S. Engelmore Memorial Lecture> given by the first author at AAAI/IAAI 2011.This research is partially supported by the Ministry of Science and Innovation of Spain under the project NEXT-CBR (TIN2009-13692-C03-01) and the Generalitat de Catalunya AGAUR Grant 2009-SGR-1434Peer Reviewe