Physical parameter-aware Networks-on-Chip design

PhD ThesisNetworks-on-Chip (NoCs) have been proposed as a scalable, reliable and power-efficient communication fabric for chip multiprocessors (CMPs) and multiprocessor systems-on-chip (MPSoCs). NoCs determine both the performance and the reliability of such systems, with a significant power demand that is expected to increase due to developments in both technology and architecture. In terms of architecture, an important trend in many-core systems architecture is to increase the number of cores on a chip while reducing their individual complexity. This trend increases communication power relative to computation power. Moreover, technology-wise, power-hungry wires are dominating logic as power consumers as technology scales down. For these reasons, the design of future very large scale integration (VLSI) systems is moving from being computation-centric to communication-centric. On the other hand, chip’s physical parameters integrity, especially power and thermal integrity, is crucial for reliable VLSI systems. However, guaranteeing this integrity is becoming increasingly difficult with the higher scale of integration due to increased power density and operating frequencies that result in continuously increasing temperature and voltage drops in the chip. This is a challenge that may prevent further shrinking of devices. Thus, tackling the challenge of power and thermal integrity of future many-core systems at only one level of abstraction, the chip and package design for example, is no longer sufficient to ensure the integrity of physical parameters. New designtime and run-time strategies may need to work together at different levels of abstraction, such as package, application, network, to provide the required physical parameter integrity for these large systems. This necessitates strategies that work at the level of the on-chip network with its rising power budget. This thesis proposes models, techniques and architectures to improve power and thermal integrity of Network-on-Chip (NoC)-based many-core systems. The thesis is composed of two major parts: i) minimization and modelling of power supply variations to improve power integrity; and ii) dynamic thermal adaptation to improve thermal integrity. This thesis makes four major contributions. The first is a computational model of on-chip power supply variations in NoCs. The proposed model embeds a power delivery model, an NoC activity simulator and a power model. The model is verified with SPICE simulation and employed to analyse power supply variations in synthetic and real NoC workloads. Novel observations regarding power supply noise correlation with different traffic patterns and routing algorithms are found. The second is a new application mapping strategy aiming vii to minimize power supply noise in NoCs. This is achieved by defining a new metric, switching activity density, and employing a force-based objective function that results in minimizing switching density. Significant reductions in power supply noise (PSN) are achieved with a low energy penalty. This reduction in PSN also results in a better link timing accuracy. The third contribution is a new dynamic thermal-adaptive routing strategy to effectively diffuse heat from the NoC-based threedimensional (3D) CMPs, using a dynamic programming (DP)-based distributed control architecture. Moreover, a new approach for efficient extension of two-dimensional (2D) partially-adaptive routing algorithms to 3D is presented. This approach improves three-dimensional networkon- chip (3D NoC) routing adaptivity while ensuring deadlock-freeness. Finally, the proposed thermal-adaptive routing is implemented in field-programmable gate array (FPGA), and implementation challenges, for both thermal sensing and the dynamic control architecture are addressed. The proposed routing implementation is evaluated in terms of both functionality and performance. The methodologies and architectures proposed in this thesis open a new direction for improving the power and thermal integrity of future NoC-based 2D and 3D many-core architectures

Thermal, Power Delivery and Reliability Management for 3D ICS

Three-dimensional (3D) integration technology is promising to continuously improve the performance of electronic devices by vertically stacking multiple active layers and connecting them with Through-Silicon-Vias (TSVs). Meanwhile, the thermal and power integrity problems are exacerbated since the power flux in 3D integrated circuits (3D ICs) increases linearly with the number of stacked layers. Moreover, the TSV structure in 3D ICs introduces new reliability problems since TSVs are vulnerable to various failure mechanisms (e.g. electromigration) and the failure of power-ground TSVs will cause voltage drop thereby significantly degrading the performance of 3D ICs. To make things worse, the high temperature, thermal gradient and power load in 3D ICs accelerate the failure of TSVs. Therefore, in order to push the 3D integration technology to full commercialization, the thermal, power integrity and reliability problem should be properly addressed in both design-time and run-time. In 3D ICs, the heat flux will easily exceed the capability of the traditional air cooling. Therefore, several aggressive cooling methods are applied to remove heat from the 3D IC, which include micro-fluidic cooling, the phase change material based cooling etc. These cooling schemes are usually implemented close to the heat source to gain high heat removal capability, thus causing more challenges to the design of 3D ICs. Unfortunately, physical design tools for 3D ICs with those aggressive cooling methods are lack. In this thesis, we will focus on 3D ICs with micro-fluidic (MF) cooling. The physical design for this kind of 3D ICs involves complex trade-offs between the circuit performance, power delivery noise, and temperature. For example, both TSVs and micro-cavities for MF cooling are fabricated in the substrate region. Therefore, they will compete in space: the allocation of signal TSVs should avoid micro-cavities to realize a feasible design, thus enforcing more constraints to the physical placement of 3D ICs. Moreover, power delivery networks (PDNs) in 3D ICs are enabled by power-ground (P/G) TSVs. The number and distribution of P/G TSVs are also constrained by micro-cavities which will influence the power integrity of the 3D IC. In addition, the capability of MF cooling degrades downstream the flow of coolant thereby causing large in-layer temperature gradient. The spatial temperature variance will affect the reliability of 3D ICs. in order to avoid it, the gate/modules in 3D ICs should be placed properly. In order to address the trade-offs 3D ICs with MF cooling, different design-time methods for application specific ICs (ASICs) and field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) are proposed, respectively. For 3D ASICs, we propose a co-design method that integrates the design of MF cooling heat sink and P/G TSVs to the physical placement for 3D ICs. Experiments on publicly available benchmarks show that using our method, we can achieve better results compared to the traditional sequential design flow. The case for 3D FPGAs is more complicated than ASICs since the routing and logic resources are fixed and the chip power and temperature is hard to estimate until the circuit is routed. Therefore, in this thesis, we first build a design space exploration (DSE) framework to study how MF cooling affects the design of 3D FPGAs. Following this, we utilize an existing 3D FPGA placement and routing tool to develop a cooling-aware placement framework for 3D FPGAs to reduce the temperature gradient. Since the activity of 3D ICs cannot be completely estimated at the design stage, the run-time management, besides design-time methods, is required to address the thermal, power and reliability problems in 3D ICs. However, the vertically stacked structure makes the run-time management for 3D ICs more complicated than 2D ICs. The major reason of this is that the power supply noise and temperature can be coupled across layers in 3D ICs. This means the activity of one layer may affect the performance and reliability of other layers through voltage/temperature coupling. As a result, we cannot perform run-time management for each layer (perhaps implemented with dierent chips) of 3D ICs separately as in 2D systems. Therefore, the space of control nodes will become larger and more complicated. To make things worse, the existing run-time management techniques have various drawbacks (e.g. large off-line characterization overhead, poor scalability etc. ), which needs more eort to improve. In this thesis, we propose a phase-driven Q-learning based run-time management technique which can tune the activity of the processor to maximize the 3D CPU performance subject to the reliability constraint

テキオウテキデンアツセイギョニムケタエムティーティーエフコウリョセッケイトセイゴウゴテストシュホウ

This paper is based on “MTTF-Aware Design Methodology of Adaptively Voltage Scaled Circuit with Timing Error Predictive Flip-Flop”[1], by the same authors, which appeared in the Proceedings of The IEICE TRANSACTIONS on Fundamentals of Electronics, Communications and Computer Sciences, Copyright(C)2019 IEICE. The material in this paper was presented in part at The IEICE TRANSACTIONS on Fundamentals of Electronics, Communications and Computer Sciences, and all the figures of this paper are reused from [1] under the permission of the IEICE

Low-cost and efficient fault detection and diagnosis schemes for modern cores

Continuous improvements in transistor scaling together with microarchitectural advances have made possible the widespread adoption of high-performance processors across all market segments. However, the growing reliability threats induced by technology scaling and by the complexity of designs are challenging the production of cheap yet robust systems. Soft error trends are haunting, especially for combinational logic, and parity and ECC codes are therefore becoming insufficient as combinational logic turns into the dominant source of soft errors. Furthermore, experts are warning about the need to also address intermittent and permanent faults during processor runtime, as increasing temperatures and device variations will accelerate inherent aging phenomena. These challenges specially threaten the commodity segments, which impose requirements that existing fault tolerance mechanisms cannot offer. Current techniques based on redundant execution were devised in a time when high penalties were assumed for the sake of high reliability levels. Novel light-weight techniques are therefore needed to enable fault protection in the mass market segments. The complexity of designs is making post-silicon validation extremely expensive. Validation costs exceed design costs, and the number of discovered bugs is growing, both during validation and once products hit the market. Fault localization and diagnosis are the biggest bottlenecks, magnified by huge detection latencies, limited internal observability, and costly server farms to generate test outputs. This thesis explores two directions to address some of the critical challenges introduced by unreliable technologies and by the limitations of current validation approaches. We first explore mechanisms for comprehensively detecting multiple sources of failures in modern processors during their lifetime (including transient, intermittent, permanent and also design bugs). Our solutions embrace a paradigm where fault tolerance is built based on exploiting high-level microarchitectural invariants that are reusable across designs, rather than relying on re-execution or ad-hoc block-level protection. To do so, we decompose the basic functionalities of processors into high-level tasks and propose three novel runtime verification solutions that combined enable global error detection: a computation/register dataflow checker, a memory dataflow checker, and a control flow checker. The techniques use the concept of end-to-end signatures and allow designers to adjust the fault coverage to their needs, by trading-off area, power and performance. Our fault injection studies reveal that our methods provide high coverage levels while causing significantly lower performance, power and area costs than existing techniques. Then, this thesis extends the applicability of the proposed error detection schemes to the validation phases. We present a fault localization and diagnosis solution for the memory dataflow by combining our error detection mechanism, a new low-cost logging mechanism and a diagnosis program. Selected internal activity is continuously traced and kept in a memory-resident log whose capacity can be expanded to suite validation needs. The solution can catch undiscovered bugs, reducing the dependence on simulation farms that compute golden outputs. Upon error detection, the diagnosis algorithm analyzes the log to automatically locate the bug, and also to determine its root cause. Our evaluations show that very high localization coverage and diagnosis accuracy can be obtained at very low performance and area costs. The net result is a simplification of current debugging practices, which are extremely manual, time consuming and cumbersome. Altogether, the integrated solutions proposed in this thesis capacitate the industry to deliver more reliable and correct processors as technology evolves into more complex designs and more vulnerable transistors.El continuo escalado de los transistores junto con los avances microarquitectónicos han posibilitado la presencia de potentes procesadores en todos los segmentos de mercado. Sin embargo, varios problemas de fiabilidad están desafiando la producción de sistemas robustos. Las predicciones de "soft errors" son inquietantes, especialmente para la lógica combinacional: soluciones como ECC o paridad se están volviendo insuficientes a medida que dicha lógica se convierte en la fuente predominante de soft errors. Además, los expertos están alertando acerca de la necesidad de detectar otras fuentes de fallos (causantes de errores permanentes e intermitentes) durante el tiempo de vida de los procesadores. Los segmentos "commodity" son los más vulnerables, ya que imponen unos requisitos que las técnicas actuales de fiabilidad no ofrecen. Estas soluciones (generalmente basadas en re-ejecución) fueron ideadas en un tiempo en el que con tal de alcanzar altos nivel de fiabilidad se asumían grandes costes. Son por tanto necesarias nuevas técnicas que permitan la protección contra fallos en los segmentos más populares. La complejidad de los diseños está encareciendo la validación "post-silicon". Su coste excede el de diseño, y el número de errores descubiertos está aumentando durante la validación y ya en manos de los clientes. La localización y el diagnóstico de errores son los mayores problemas, empeorados por las altas latencias en la manifestación de errores, por la poca observabilidad interna y por el coste de generar las señales esperadas. Esta tesis explora dos direcciones para tratar algunos de los retos causados por la creciente vulnerabilidad hardware y por las limitaciones de los enfoques de validación. Primero exploramos mecanismos para detectar múltiples fuentes de fallos durante el tiempo de vida de los procesadores (errores transitorios, intermitentes, permanentes y de diseño). Nuestras soluciones son de un paradigma donde la fiabilidad se construye explotando invariantes microarquitectónicos genéricos, en lugar de basarse en re-ejecución o en protección ad-hoc. Para ello descomponemos las funcionalidades básicas de un procesador y proponemos tres soluciones de `runtime verification' que combinadas permiten una detección de errores a nivel global. Estas tres soluciones son: un verificador de flujo de datos de registro y de computación, un verificador de flujo de datos de memoria y un verificador de flujo de control. Nuestras técnicas usan el concepto de firmas y permiten a los diseñadores ajustar los niveles de protección a sus necesidades, mediante compensaciones en área, consumo energético y rendimiento. Nuestros estudios de inyección de errores revelan que los métodos propuestos obtienen altos niveles de protección, a la vez que causan menos costes que las soluciones existentes. A continuación, esta tesis explora la aplicabilidad de estos esquemas a las fases de validación. Proponemos una solución de localización y diagnóstico de errores para el flujo de datos de memoria que combina nuestro mecanismo de detección de errores, junto con un mecanismo de logging de bajo coste y un programa de diagnóstico. Cierta actividad interna es continuamente registrada en una zona de memoria cuya capacidad puede ser expandida para satisfacer las necesidades de validación. La solución permite descubrir bugs, reduciendo la necesidad de calcular los resultados esperados. Al detectar un error, el algoritmo de diagnóstico analiza el registro para automáticamente localizar el bug y determinar su causa. Nuestros estudios muestran un alto grado de localización y de precisión de diagnóstico a un coste muy bajo de rendimiento y área. El resultado es una simplificación de las prácticas actuales de depuración, que son enormemente manuales, incómodas y largas. En conjunto, las soluciones de esta tesis capacitan a la industria a producir procesadores más fiables, a medida que la tecnología evoluciona hacia diseños más complejos y más vulnerables