Między "sensus catholicus" a "uchrześcijanionym nacjonalizmem" : sztuka Kościoła rzymskokatolickiego na Górnym Śląsku wobec dyskursów narodowych

The presence of national symbols, secular heroes’ and historical events’ depictions along with folk motifs, for more than a hundred years have been transforming churches in Poland into the realm of reproducing group identity, whose profiling has been informed by Catholic-national ideology. In Upper Silesia, which entered the modern era divided between Prussia and the Habsburg Empire, the interplay between Catholicism and individual nationalisms was complex and varied in time. The region’s Prussian part was characterised by the successes of political Catholicism concurrent with the burgeoning mass society, the former having been represented by the Centre Party, which opposed the Bismarck’s politics of linguistic uniformity and reducing the influence of the Catholic Church. To Catholicism, largely determining the worldview of the Upper Silesian Slavophones, also referred the Polish national movement, that had been forming at the end of the 19th century. The first attempt at recording the national discourse in religious sacred art was undertaken by Fr. Aleksander Skowroński, who in the year 1908 commissioned a Krakow-based painter, Włodzimierz Tetmajer, with designing stained glass windows for St. Stanislaus the Martyr church in Ligota Bialska. The said stained glass windows depict the church’s (and Poland’s) patron saint at the moment of resurrecting Piotrowin, which was interpreted by the said parish priest as “resurrecting nationality in the Upper Silesian people,” as well as Saints Peter and Paul, and Saints Cyril and Methodius. The latter pair of saints were to represent the role models for priesthood respecting the “authentic” folk culture, which in case of Upper Silesians, and to the mind of the commissioning party, meant – the Polish culture. The foregoing initiative was counterpointed by the interior design of St. Paul’s church in Nowy Bytom, where the hierarchy of values promoted by political Catholicism was depicted. Appreciation for language and historical diversity is therein manifested by the use of both German and Polish language in inscriptions and by the fact that the saints venerated in Germany and Poland are shown in the church’s stained glass windows. The paramount idea of the said design is, obviously, the catholicism (i.e. the commonality) of the Church, which is best expressed by Latin being located over the vernacular idioms, by the allegiance pledged to the state symbolised by “kaiserian” architecture of the church, and by Silesian territorial community invoked by the reference to the region’s architectural tradition. The division of Upper Silesia in 1922 and the establishment of a new diocese in the territory granted to Poland caused the social advancement of pro-Polish clergy. One example of such an advancement was Emil Szramek, the parish priest of St. Mary’s parish church in Katowice, who commissioned for the temple a series of canvas painted by Józef Unierzyski of Krakow. The said series presented Upper Silesians as a community strongly connected with Poland on the grounds of faith and the mission as the “Bulwark of Christendom” (Antemurale christianitatis) destined to bestow the spirit of living religiousness unto the nation beloved by the Mother of Christ. Images of the Blessed Virgin Mary, the Queen of Poland and those of “Polish” saints were the most frequently utilised motifs combining religious and national content. This dual dimension may have also been seen in instances of translocating wooden churches from smaller localities to cities densely populated by Germans, such as Katowice and Chorzów. While it was carried out, the Slavic character of those objects was emphasised, which was supposed to testify to the Polishness of the region. Yet, the most grandiose architectural endeavour of the diocese was building of the Cathedral. According to the plans, the temple’s façade was to include statues of Saints Cyril and Methodius, whose figures had already been weaponised by “Slavic” nationalisms as symbols of defiance against Germanisation. The German part of the region was practically devoid of such an ostentation. Some confrontational tones, however, resounded at St. Barbara’s church in Bytom, whose façade was then facing, not unlike a stronghold, the state border with Poland. In other churches, the national content was carried by inscriptions’ language and, rarely, the images of “German” saints. The German discourse was also imbued with homage paid to the fallen in the Great War. Separately from the mentioned nationalist context, the commemoration of soldiers took a grand form in the former capital of Austrian Silesia, which since 1918 belonged to Czechoslovakia yet remained dominated by Germans, namely, in Opava. Therein, St. Hedwig’s church was erected as a monument to the fallen in the years 1914–1918, and as an expression of super-ethnical Silesian community. In 1945, within the part of Upper Silesia ceded to Poland, the national “purification” of churches was instigated, which involved removing German-language inscriptions, and introducing “Polish” saints instead, along with copies of Marian paintings hitherto venerated in the Polish lands. An occasion to create massive ideological programmes were the commemorating ceremonies of the thousandth anniversary of the Baptism of Poland in 1966. Then, the Millennial Frieze was created in a church in Knurów, on which Germans epitomised by the Teutonic Knights were depicted as the eternal enemy. A slightly more nuanced image of Polish-German relations, in turn, was featured in paintings of the Assumption of Mary church in Racibórz, where, without turning a blind eye to the conflicts, the shared Catholic traditions of both the nations were presented. The year 1989 brought the freedom to present competing visions of the past, thereby triggering new efforts in the field of recording Catholic-national discourse in art. In the years 2010‒2012, the Polish Golgotha at St. Barbara’s church in Gliwice and the Motherland’s Golgotha at St. Mary’s church in Katowice were built, delivering a comprehensive historiosiophical view of Poland’s history inspired by Romantic Messianism. The attitude to national discourses, as expressed by the religious sacred spaces in Upper Silesia, extends over the polar opposites of indifferentism and affirmation. During the first decades of the 20th century, aside from neutrality, cases of questioning the national paradigm occurred along with some alternative visions of national community. With the passage of time, the programmes appeared that would be adapted to national framework, but also those whose core massage is defined by Catholic-national historiosophy

Antyczne dokonania enologiczne jako źródło inspiracji europejskiej kultury muzycznej

Głównymi tezami pracy jest z jednej strony założenie o jedności kultury europejskiej objawiającej się w swym daleko sięgającym zróżnicowaniu oraz, z drugiej strony, rozumienie antycznego obszaru uprawy wina jako centrum myślenia innowacyjnego, także w sferze muzyki. Całość kultury europejskiej traktowana jest jako dziedzictwo starożytności, a kolejne reinterpretacje kanonów antycznych te zależności argumentują w różnych sferach. Poszczególne epoki historyczne rozpatrywane są według subiektywnych założeń ideologicznych w kontekście wpływów antycznych określonych jako izolacja, asymilacja, konflikt i integracja. W rozprawie zostały również ukazane hipotezy znanych uczonych: o retardacji dziedziny muzyki wobec innych sztuk, o dychotomicznym zróżnicowaniu geograficznym kultury kontynentu, o przeciwieństwie prądów płynących z centrum i peryferii czy o sinusoidalnym oglądzie kultury. Exemplum pierwszej tezy in varietate concordia jest rozdział o wielowiekowych odmiennościach mentalności i estetyki niemieckiej i francuskiej, co jest zobrazowane także w sferze muzyki, centralny zaś rozdział jest chronologicznym ujęciem historii uprawy wina w Europie, kulturowych konsekwencji tej uprawy dla literatury, sztuki, w tym muzyki oraz wykładnią drugiej tezy o innowacyjnym sposobie myślenia na tym określonym terytorium w dyscyplinie sztuki dźwięków. Dopełnieniem obrazu o wartościach kultury europejskiej są rozdziały szósty (opis wyselekcjonowanych toposów kultury europejskiej, np. ogrodu, Liebestod, sielanki czy czarownicy) oraz siódmy, będący zarysowaniem toposu coincidentio oppositorum w subiektywnym przedstawieniu w postaci czterech procesów dyfuzji komponentów procesów mentalnych – interferencji, inkrustacji, konwergencji i anuncjacji oraz w opisie wybranych syndromów kulturowych wyjaśnianych w odniesieniu do muzyki (ars antiqua i ars nova, sacrum i profanum, ratio i emotio, agon i koegzystencja, narracja i struktura, bohatera i tłumu). Bazą prezentacji jest metoda komparatystyczna, hermeneutyczny ogląd dzieł muzycznych w swej ewolucji na tle przeobrażeń socjologicznych, stylistycznych i geograficznych w oparciu o wykładnię nowej antropologii kultury. Oparciem intelektualnym są ważne dla myśli europejskiej publikacje m. in. N. Daviesa, E. Curtiusa, J. Le Goffa, L. Meyera, R. Tarnasa, A. Toynbeego oraz M. Tomaszewskiego (muzyka)