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Networks, complexity and internet regulation: scale-free law
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Networks, complexity and internet regulation scale-free law
This book, then, starts with a general statement: that regulators should try, wherever possible, to use the physical methodological tools presently
available in order to draft better legislation. While such an assertion may be applied to
the law in general, this work will concentrate on the much narrower area of Internet
regulation and the science of complex networks The Internet is the subject of this book not only because it is my main area of
research, but also because âwithout over-emphasising the importance of the Internet to
everyday lifeâ one cannot deny that the growth and popularisation of the global
communications network has had a tremendous impact on the way in which we interact
with one another. The Internet is, however, just one of many interactive networks. One
way of looking at the complex and chaotic nature of society is to see it as a collection of
different nodes of interaction. Humans are constantly surrounded by networks: the social
network, the financial network, the transport network, the telecommunications network
and even the network of our own bodies. Understanding how these systems operate and
interact with one another has been the realm of physicists, economists, biologists and
mathematicians. Until recently, the study of networks has been mainly theoretical and
academic, because it is difficult to gather data about large and complex systems that is
sufficiently reliable to support proper empirical application. In recent years, though, the
Internet has given researchers the opportunity to study and test the mathematical
descriptions of these vast complex systems. The growth rate and structure of cyberspace
has allowed researchers to map and test several previously unproven theories about how
links and hubs within networks interact with one another. The Web now provides the
means with which to test the organisational structures, architecture and growth of
networks, and even permits some limited prediction about their behaviour, strengths and
vulnerabilities. The main objective of this book is first and foremost to serve as an introduction to the
wider legal audience to some of the theories of complexity and networks. The second
objective is more ambitious. By looking at the application of complexity theory and network science in various areas of Internet regulation, it is hoped that there will be
enough evidence to postulate a theory of Internet regulation based on network science.
To achieve these two goals, Chapter 2 will look in detail at the science of complex
networks to set the stage for the legal and regulatory arguments to follow. With the
increase in reliability of the descriptive (and sometimes predictive) nature of network
science, a logical next step for legal scholars is to look at the legal implications of the
characteristics of networks. Chapter 3 highlights the efforts of academics and
practitioners who have started to find potential uses for network science tools. Chapter 4
takes this idea further, and explores how network theory can shape Internet regulation.
The following chapters will analyse the potential for application of the tools described
in the previous chapters, applying complexity theory to specific areas of study related to
Internet Law. Chapter 5 deals with the subject of copyright in the digital world. Chapter
6 explores the issue of peer-production and user-generated content using network
science as an analytical framework. Chapter 7 finishes the evidence section of the work
by studying the impact of network architecture in the field of cybercrime, and asks
whether the existing architecture hinders or assists efforts to tackle those problems.
It is clear that these are very disparate areas of study. It is not the intention of this
book to be overreaching in its scope, although I am mindful that it covers a lot of ground
and attempts to study and describe some disciplines that fall outside of my intellectual
comfort zone. While the focus of the work is the Internet, its applications may extend
beyond mere electronic bits. Without trying to be over-ambitious, it is my strong belief
that legal scholarship has been neglectful in that it has been slow to respond to the
wealth of research into complexity. That is not to say that there has been no legal
research on the topic, but it would seem that lawyers, legislators and policy-makers are
reluctant to consider technical solutions to legal problems. It is hoped then that this work
will serve as a stepping stone that will lead to new interest in some of the theories that I
describe
Aspects of legal regulation in the context of the Internet
Die wĂȘreld soos dit vandag bestaan, is gebaseer op die Internasionaalregtelike
konsep van soewereiniteit. State het die bevoegdheid om hulle eie sake
te reĂ«l, maar die ontwikkeling van die Internet as ân netwerk wat globaal
verspreid is, het hierdie beginsel verontagsaam. Dit wou voorkom asof die
Internet die einde van soewereiniteit en staatskap sou beteken.
ân Geskiedkundige oorsig toon dat reguleerders aanvanklik onseker was
oor hoe hierdie nuwe medium hanteer moes word. Dit het geblyk dat nuwe
tegnologieë wat fragmentasie van die Internet bewerkstellig, gebruik kon
word om staatsgebonde regsreĂ«ls af te dwing. Verskeie state van die wĂȘreld
het uiteenlopende metodologieë gevolg om die Internet op staatsvlak te
probeer reguleer, en dit het tot die lukraak-wyse waarop die Internet tans
gereguleer word, aanleiding gegee.
Hierdie studie bespreek verskeie aspekte van regsbeheer in die konteks
van die Internet, en bepaal daardeur hoe die Internet tans gereguleer word.
Toepaslike wetgewing van verskeie state word regdeur die studie bespreek.
Vier prominente state, wat verskeie belangrike ingrepe ten aansien van
Internetregulering gemaak het, word verder uitgelig. Dit is die Verenigde
State van Amerika, die Volksrepubliek van Sjina, die Europese Unie as
verteenwoordiger van Europese state, en Suid-Afrika. Aspekte wat op
Internasionaalregtelike vlak aangespreek moet word, soos internasionale
organisasies en internasionale regsteorieë ten aansien van die regulering
van die Internet, word ook onder die loep geneem.
Die bevindings wat uit die studie volg, word gebruik om verskeie
aanbevelings te maak, en die aanbevelings word uiteindelik in ân nuwe
model saamgevoegomân sinvoller wyse van regulering van die Internet voor
te stel.
Aangesien die huidige studie in die konteks van die Internasionale
reg onderneem word, word die studie afgesluit met ân bespreking van
kubersoewereiniteit, wat ân uiteensetting is van hoe soewereiniteit ten
aansien van die Internet toegepas behoort te word. Die gevolgtrekking is
insiggewend â die ontwikkeling van die Internet het nie die einde van
soewereiniteit beteken nie, maar het dit juis bevestig.The world is currently structured in different states, and this is premised
on the International law concept of sovereignty. States have the capacity
to structure their own affairs, but the development of the Internet as a
globally distributed network has violated this principle. It would seem that
the development of the Internet would mean the end of sovereignty and
statehood.
A historical overview shows that regulators were initially unsure of how
this new medium should be dealt with. It appeared that new technologies
that could fragment the Internet, could be used to enforce state bound
law. Several states of the world have used different methodologies trying to
regulate the Internet at state level, and this led to the random way in which
the Internet is currently regulated.
This study examines various aspects of legal regulation in the context
of the Internet, and determines how the Internet is currently regulated.
Appropriate legislation of several states are discussed throughout the
study. Four prominent states, which made several important interventions
regarding the regulation of the Internet, are highlighted further. It is the
United States, the Peopleâs Republic of China, the European Union as the
representative of European countries, and South Africa. Aspects that need to
be addressed on International law level, such as international organizations
and international legal theories regarding the regulation of the Internet, are
also discussed.
The findings that follow from this study are used to make several
recommendations, which in turn are used to construct a new model for a
more meaningful way in which the Internet could be regulated.
Since the present study is undertaken in the context of the International
law, the study is concluded with a discussion of cyber sovereignty, which
is a discussion of how sovereignty should be applied with regards to the
Internet. The conclusion is enlighteningâthe development of the Internet
does not indicate the end of sovereignty, but rather confirms it.Criminal and Procedural LawLL
Hybrid Warfare
This book is available as open access through the Bloomsbury Open Access programme and is available on www.bloomsburycollections.com. Hybrid Warfare refers to a military strategy that blends conventional warfare, so-called âirregular warfareâ and cyber-attacks with other influencing methods, such as fake news, diplomacy and foreign political intervention. As Hybrid Warfare becomes increasingly commonplace, there is an imminent need for research bringing attention to how these challenges can be addressed in order to develop a comprehensive approach towards Hybrid Threats and Hybrid Warfare. This volume supports the development of such an approach by bringing together practitioners and scholarly perspectives on the topic and by covering the threats themselves, as well as the tools and means to counter them, together with a number of real-world case studies. The book covers numerous aspects of current Hybrid Warfare discourses including a discussion of the perspectives of key western actors such as NATO, the US and the EU; an analysis of Russia and Chinaâs Hybrid Warfare capabilities; and the growing threat of cyberwarfare. A range of global case studies â featuring specific examples from the Baltics, Taiwan, Ukraine, Iran and Catalonia â are drawn upon to demonstrate the employment of Hybrid Warfare tactics and how they have been countered in practice. Finally, the editors propose a new method through which to understand the dynamics of Hybrid Threats, Warfare and their countermeasures, termed the âHybridity Blizzard Modelâ. With a focus on practitioner insight and practicable International Relations theory, this volume is an essential guide to identifying, analysing and countering Hybrid Threats and Warfare
Cyber Security of Critical Infrastructures
Critical infrastructures are vital assets for public safety, economic welfare, and the national security of countries. The vulnerabilities of critical infrastructures have increased with the widespread use of information technologies. As Critical National Infrastructures are becoming more vulnerable to cyber-attacks, their protection becomes a significant issue for organizations as well as nations. The risks to continued operations, from failing to upgrade aging infrastructure or not meeting mandated regulatory regimes, are considered highly significant, given the demonstrable impact of such circumstances. Due to the rapid increase of sophisticated cyber threats targeting critical infrastructures with significant destructive effects, the cybersecurity of critical infrastructures has become an agenda item for academics, practitioners, and policy makers. A holistic view which covers technical, policy, human, and behavioural aspects is essential to handle cyber security of critical infrastructures effectively. Moreover, the ability to attribute crimes to criminals is a vital element of avoiding impunity in cyberspace. In this book, both research and practical aspects of cyber security considerations in critical infrastructures are presented. Aligned with the interdisciplinary nature of cyber security, authors from academia, government, and industry have contributed 13 chapters. The issues that are discussed and analysed include cybersecurity training, maturity assessment frameworks, malware analysis techniques, ransomware attacks, security solutions for industrial control systems, and privacy preservation methods
Hybrid Warfare
This book is available as open access through the Bloomsbury Open Access programme and is available on www.bloomsburycollections.com. Hybrid Warfare refers to a military strategy that blends conventional warfare, so-called âirregular warfareâ and cyber-attacks with other influencing methods, such as fake news, diplomacy and foreign political intervention. As Hybrid Warfare becomes increasingly commonplace, there is an imminent need for research bringing attention to how these challenges can be addressed in order to develop a comprehensive approach towards Hybrid Threats and Hybrid Warfare. This volume supports the development of such an approach by bringing together practitioners and scholarly perspectives on the topic and by covering the threats themselves, as well as the tools and means to counter them, together with a number of real-world case studies. The book covers numerous aspects of current Hybrid Warfare discourses including a discussion of the perspectives of key western actors such as NATO, the US and the EU; an analysis of Russia and Chinaâs Hybrid Warfare capabilities; and the growing threat of cyberwarfare. A range of global case studies â featuring specific examples from the Baltics, Taiwan, Ukraine, Iran and Catalonia â are drawn upon to demonstrate the employment of Hybrid Warfare tactics and how they have been countered in practice. Finally, the editors propose a new method through which to understand the dynamics of Hybrid Threats, Warfare and their countermeasures, termed the âHybridity Blizzard Modelâ. With a focus on practitioner insight and practicable International Relations theory, this volume is an essential guide to identifying, analysing and countering Hybrid Threats and Warfare
Von traditionellen Immersionsmedien zum Computerspiel
Im Bundle der Unterhaltungsmedien nimmt der Computer als Performance-Plattform eine zunehmend dominierende Stellung ein. Die Erfolgsgeschichte des Personal Computers beginnt etwa seit den 1980er Jahren. Seit dem ist ein kontinuierlicher Leistungszuwachs (Mooresches Gesetz) mit sich stetig erweiternden Anwendungsfeldern zu verzeichnen. Gekoppelt mit der Echtzeitkommunikation im Netzwerk bildet das massentaugliche Medium Computer eine globale Informations- und Kommunikationsstruktur. Von den Entwicklungen der digitalen Technologie profitieren im Markt der Unterhaltungsmedien die Computerspiele mit dem Ausbau der Grafik, der Simulationen und der implementierten KĂŒnstlichen Intelligenz.
Bislang sind Untersuchungen zur Ăsthetik des digitalen Bildes im Computerspiel noch lĂŒckenhaft. Mit dem Fokus auf Vorbilder, Technologieentwicklungen, BildĂ€sthetik und Medienrezeption soll die Forschung weitere Impulse erhalten. Dies empfiehlt sich, da die Produktion immer neuer Spiele auf Hochtouren lĂ€uft und sich Akzentverschiebungen in der Medienlandschaft anzeigen. Im deutschen Verbrauchermarkt (2003) verdrĂ€ngt das Computerspiel den Kinofilm bereits vom ersten Platz. Zugleich wird ein Wettstreit deutlich: Spiele werden Filme, Filme werden Spiele.
Die Untersuchung will im ersten Teil einen medienhistorischen Blick auf die Eigenschaften traditioneller werkzeuggestĂŒtzter Vorbilder und auf immersive Bildkonzepte richten (Panorama, Fotografie, Camera Obscura), um Verbindungen zur zeitgemĂ€Ăen Bildperformance herauszuarbeiten (2). Zudem werden grundlegende Meilensteine in der Technologieentwicklung aufgezeigt, bis sich schlieĂlich der Computer als Universalwerkzeug, Spielmaschine und Spender digitaler Bilder etabliert (3). Im weiteren Teil werden Auswirkungen auf die Arbeits-, Freizeit- und Kommunikationswelt markiert, die von der Computer-Technologie auf die AlltagsrealitĂ€t ausgehen und zur digitalen Revolution fĂŒhren (4). Der Wandel zweidimensionaler zu dreidimensionaler Bildwelten eröffnet im Computerspiel einen nahezu uneingeschrĂ€nkten Zugang zum virtuellen Kunstraum (5). Eigenschaften digitaler Bilder sowie Grundlegendes zur Virtuellen RealitĂ€t und zu kĂŒnstlichen Figuren bereiten hier den Fokus auf die Untersuchung des Computerspiels vor. Die bildĂ€sthetische Untersuchung zur etwa 20 jĂ€hrigen Geschichte des Computerspiels (6) macht die Basisentwicklungen anschaulich: ausgehend von einfachen Stilisierungen reifen die virtuellen Szenarien zu dreidimensionalen fotorealistischen Welten heran. Qualifikationsmerkmale von Computerspielen aus den Rezensionen einiger Fachzeitschriften sowie ein Kriterienkatalog parallel zur Installationsroutine (7) dienen zur KlĂ€rung der Fragestellung: Wann ist ein Computerspiel erfolgreich? RezeptionsĂ€sthetische Anmerkungen zum Bildzugang verweisen auf die Schwierigkeit im erkenntnistheoretischen Diskurs, Aussagen ĂŒber das Bild und die Wirklichkeit zu formulieren (8). Doch gerade die virtuellen Welten regen dazu an, die Konstitutionsbedingungen von Bildern im Sinne einer neuronalen Ăsthetik zu hinterfragen und eine Vision synthetischer neuronaler Bilder im Vorgriff auf noch zu bewĂ€ltigende Forschungen zu diskutieren. SchlieĂlich stehen mediale Wirksamkeiten im Fokus der simulierten Welten (9). Mit anwachsenden Potentialen der Immersionsmedien wandelt sich die Betrachter-Bild-Relation. Der Nutzer wird zum Protagonisten des multimedialen Narrationskonzeptes im Computerspiel erhoben. Immersion ist im Reich des Scheins Programm: Der Spieler ist im Spiel, er fĂŒhlt sich mit seinem Alter Ego â der von ihm gefĂŒhrten Spielfigur â als Bestandteil einer realistischen, semirealistischen oder fiktiven Welt