Human-robot collaborative multi-agent path planning using Monte Carlo tree search and social reward sources

© 2021 IEEE. Personal use of this material is permitted. Permission from IEEE must be obtained for all other uses, in any current or future media, including reprinting /republishing this material for advertising or promotional purposes, creating new collective works, for resale or redistribution to servers or lists, or reuse of any copyrighted component of this work in other worksThe collaboration between humans and robots in an object search task requires the achievement of shared plans obtained from communicating and negotiating. In this work, we assume that the robot computes, as a first step, a multiagent plan for both itself and the human. Then, both plans are submitted to human scrutiny, who either agrees or modifies it forcing the robot to adapt its own restrictions or preferences. This process is repeated along the search task as many times as required by the human. Our planner is based on a decentralized variant of Monte Carlo Tree Search (MCTS), with one robot and one human as agents. Moreover, our algorithm allows the robot and the human to optimize their own actions by maintaining a probability distribution over the plans in a joint action space. The method allows an objective function definition over action sequences, it assumes intermittent communication, it is anytime and suitable for on-line replanning. To test it, we have developed a human-robot communication mobile phone interface. Validation is provided by real-life search experiments of a Parcheesi token in an urban space, including also an acceptability study.Work supported under the Spanish State Research Agency through the Maria de Maeztu Seal of Excellence to IRI (MDM-2016- 0656), ROCOTRANSP project (PID2019-106702RB-C21 / AEI / 10.13039/501100011033), TERRINet (H2020-INFRAIA-2017-1-two-stage730994) and AI4EU (H2020-ICT-2018-2-825619)Peer ReviewedPostprint (published version

An enactive approach to perceptual augmentation in mobility

Event predictions are an important constituent of situation awareness, which is a key objective for many applications in human-machine interaction, in particular in driver assistance. This work focuses on facilitating event predictions in dynamic environments. Its primary contributions are 1) the theoretical development of an approach for enabling people to expand their sampling and understanding of spatiotemporal information, 2) the introduction of exemplary systems that are guided by this approach, 3) the empirical investigation of effects functional prototypes of these systems have on human behavior and safety in a range of simulated road traffic scenarios, and 4) a connection of the investigated approach to work on cooperative human-machine systems. More specific contents of this work are summarized as follows: The first part introduces several challenges for the formation of situation awareness as a requirement for safe traffic participation. It reviews existing work on these challenges in the domain of driver assistance, resulting in an identification of the need to better inform drivers about dynamically changing aspects of a scene, including event probabilities, spatial and temporal distances, as well as a suggestion to expand the scope of assistance systems to start informing drivers about relevant scene elements at an early stage. Novel forms of assistance can be guided by different fundamental approaches that target either replacement, distribution, or augmentation of driver competencies. A subsequent differentiation of these approaches concludes that an augmentation-guided paradigm, characterized by an integration of machine capabilities into human feedback loops, can be advantageous for tasks that rely on active user engagement, the preservation of awareness and competence, and the minimization of complexity in human- machine interaction. Consequently, findings and theories about human sensorimotor processes are connected to develop an enactive approach that is consistent with an augmentation perspective on human-machine interaction. The approach is characterized by enabling drivers to exercise new sensorimotor processes through which safety-relevant spatiotemporal information may be sampled. In the second part of this work, a concept and functional prototype for augmenting the perception of traffic dynamics is introduced as a first example for applying principles of this enactive approach. As a loose expression of functional biomimicry, the prototype utilizes a tactile inter- face that communicates temporal distances to potential hazards continuously through stimulus intensity. In a driving simulator study, participants quickly gained an intuitive understanding of the assistance without instructions and demonstrated higher driving safety in safety-critical highway scenarios. But this study also raised new questions such as whether benefits are due to a continuous time-intensity encoding and whether utility generalizes to intersection scenarios or highway driving with low criticality events. Effects of an expanded assistance prototype with lane-independent risk assessment and an option for binary signaling were thus investigated in a separate driving simulator study. Subjective responses confirmed quick signal understanding and a perception of spatial and temporal stimulus characteristics. Surprisingly, even for a binary assistance variant with a constant intensity level, participants reported perceiving a danger-dependent variation in stimulus intensity. They further felt supported by the system in the driving task, especially in difficult situations. But in contrast to the first study, this support was not expressed by changes in driving safety, suggesting that perceptual demands of the low criticality scenarios could be satisfied by existing driver capabilities. But what happens if such basic capabilities are impaired, e.g., due to poor visibility conditions or other situations that introduce perceptual uncertainty? In a third driving simulator study, the driver assistance was employed specifically in such ambiguous situations and produced substantial safety advantages over unassisted driving. Additionally, an assistance variant that adds an encoding of spatial uncertainty was investigated in these scenarios. Participants had no difficulties to understand and utilize this added signal dimension to improve safety. Despite being inherently less informative than spatially precise signals, users rated uncertainty-encoding signals as equally useful and satisfying. This appreciation for transparency of variable assistance reliability is a promising indicator for the feasibility of an adaptive trust calibration in human-machine interaction and marks one step towards a closer integration of driver and vehicle capabilities. A complementary step on the driver side would be to increase transparency about the driver’s mental states and thus allow for mutual adaptation. The final part of this work discusses how such prerequisites of cooperation may be achieved by monitoring mental state correlates observable in human behavior, especially in eye movements. Furthermore, the outlook for an addition of cooperative features also raises new questions about the bounds of identity as well as practical consequences of human-machine systems in which co-adapting agents may exercise sensorimotor processes through one another.Die Vorhersage von Ereignissen ist ein Bestandteil des Situationsbewusstseins, dessen Unterstützung ein wesentliches Ziel diverser Anwendungen im Bereich Mensch-Maschine Interaktion ist, insbesondere in der Fahrerassistenz. Diese Arbeit zeigt Möglichkeiten auf, Menschen bei Vorhersagen in dynamischen Situationen im Straßenverkehr zu unterstützen. Zentrale Beiträge der Arbeit sind 1) eine theoretische Auseinandersetzung mit der Aufgabe, die menschliche Wahrnehmung und das Verständnis von raum-zeitlichen Informationen im Straßenverkehr zu erweitern, 2) die Einführung beispielhafter Systeme, die aus dieser Betrachtung hervorgehen, 3) die empirische Untersuchung der Auswirkungen dieser Systeme auf das Nutzerverhalten und die Fahrsicherheit in simulierten Verkehrssituationen und 4) die Verknüpfung der untersuchten Ansätze mit Arbeiten an kooperativen Mensch-Maschine Systemen. Die Arbeit ist in drei Teile gegliedert: Der erste Teil stellt einige Herausforderungen bei der Bildung von Situationsbewusstsein vor, welches für die sichere Teilnahme am Straßenverkehr notwendig ist. Aus einem Vergleich dieses Überblicks mit früheren Arbeiten zeigt sich, dass eine Notwendigkeit besteht, Fahrer besser über dynamische Aspekte von Fahrsituationen zu informieren. Dies umfasst unter anderem Ereigniswahrscheinlichkeiten, räumliche und zeitliche Distanzen, sowie eine frühere Signalisierung relevanter Elemente in der Umgebung. Neue Formen der Assistenz können sich an verschiedenen grundlegenden Ansätzen der Mensch-Maschine Interaktion orientieren, die entweder auf einen Ersatz, eine Verteilung oder eine Erweiterung von Fahrerkompetenzen abzielen. Die Differenzierung dieser Ansätze legt den Schluss nahe, dass ein von Kompetenzerweiterung geleiteter Ansatz für die Bewältigung jener Aufgaben von Vorteil ist, bei denen aktiver Nutzereinsatz, die Erhaltung bestehender Kompetenzen und Situationsbewusstsein gefordert sind. Im Anschluss werden Erkenntnisse und Theorien über menschliche sensomotorische Prozesse verknüpft, um einen enaktiven Ansatz der Mensch-Maschine Interaktion zu entwickeln, der einer erweiterungsgeleiteten Perspektive Rechnung trägt. Dieser Ansatz soll es Fahrern ermöglichen, sicherheitsrelevante raum-zeitliche Informationen über neue sensomotorische Prozesse zu erfassen. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit wird ein Konzept und funktioneller Prototyp zur Erweiterung der Wahrnehmung von Verkehrsdynamik als ein erstes Beispiel zur Anwendung der Prinzipien dieses enaktiven Ansatzes vorgestellt. Dieser Prototyp nutzt vibrotaktile Aktuatoren zur Kommunikation von Richtungen und zeitlichen Distanzen zu möglichen Gefahrenquellen über die Aktuatorposition und -intensität. Teilnehmer einer Fahrsimulationsstudie waren in der Lage, in kurzer Zeit ein intuitives Verständnis dieser Assistenz zu entwickeln, ohne vorher über die Funktionalität unterrichtet worden zu sein. Sie zeigten zudem ein erhöhtes Maß an Fahrsicherheit in kritischen Verkehrssituationen. Doch diese Studie wirft auch neue Fragen auf, beispielsweise, ob der Sicherheitsgewinn auf kontinuierliche Distanzkodierung zurückzuführen ist und ob ein Nutzen auch in weiteren Szenarien vorliegen würde, etwa bei Kreuzungen und weniger kritischem longitudinalen Verkehr. Um diesen Fragen nachzugehen, wurden Effekte eines erweiterten Prototypen mit spurunabhängiger Kollisionsprädiktion, sowie einer Option zur binären Kommunikation möglicher Kollisionsrichtungen in einer weiteren Fahrsimulatorstudie untersucht. Auch in dieser Studie bestätigen die subjektiven Bewertungen ein schnelles Verständnis der Signale und eine Wahrnehmung räumlicher und zeitlicher Signalkomponenten. Überraschenderweise berichteten Teilnehmer größtenteils auch nach der Nutzung einer binären Assistenzvariante, dass sie eine gefahrabhängige Variation in der Intensität von taktilen Stimuli wahrgenommen hätten. Die Teilnehmer fühlten sich mit beiden Varianten in der Fahraufgabe unterstützt, besonders in Situationen, die von ihnen als kritisch eingeschätzt wurden. Im Gegensatz zur ersten Studie hat sich diese gefühlte Unterstützung nur geringfügig in einer messbaren Sicherheitsveränderung widergespiegelt. Dieses Ergebnis deutet darauf hin, dass die Wahrnehmungsanforderungen der Szenarien mit geringer Kritikalität mit den vorhandenen Fahrerkapazitäten erfüllt werden konnten. Doch was passiert, wenn diese Fähigkeiten eingeschränkt werden, beispielsweise durch schlechte Sichtbedingungen oder Situationen mit erhöhter Ambiguität? In einer dritten Fahrsimulatorstudie wurde das Assistenzsystem in speziell solchen Situationen eingesetzt, was zu substantiellen Sicherheitsvorteilen gegenüber unassistiertem Fahren geführt hat. Zusätzlich zu der vorher eingeführten Form wurde eine neue Variante des Prototyps untersucht, welche räumliche Unsicherheiten der Fahrzeugwahrnehmung in taktilen Signalen kodiert. Studienteilnehmer hatten keine Schwierigkeiten, diese zusätzliche Signaldimension zu verstehen und die Information zur Verbesserung der Fahrsicherheit zu nutzen. Obwohl sie inherent weniger informativ sind als räumlich präzise Signale, bewerteten die Teilnehmer die Signale, die die Unsicherheit übermitteln, als ebenso nützlich und zufriedenstellend. Solch eine Wertschätzung für die Transparenz variabler Informationsreliabilität ist ein vielversprechendes Indiz für die Möglichkeit einer adaptiven Vertrauenskalibrierung in der Mensch-Maschine Interaktion. Dies ist ein Schritt hin zur einer engeren Integration der Fähigkeiten von Fahrer und Fahrzeug. Ein komplementärer Schritt wäre eine Erweiterung der Transparenz mentaler Zustände des Fahrers, wodurch eine wechselseitige Anpassung von Mensch und Maschine möglich wäre. Der letzte Teil dieser Arbeit diskutiert, wie diese Transparenz und weitere Voraussetzungen von Mensch-Maschine Kooperation erfüllt werden könnten, indem etwa Korrelate mentaler Zustände, insbesondere über das Blickverhalten, überwacht werden. Des Weiteren ergeben sich mit Blick auf zusätzliche kooperative Fähigkeiten neue Fragen über die Definition von Identität, sowie über die praktischen Konsequenzen von Mensch-Maschine Systemen, in denen ko-adaptive Agenten sensomotorische Prozesse vermittels einander ausüben können

Team MIT Urban Challenge Technical Report

This technical report describes Team MITs approach to theDARPA Urban Challenge. We have developed a novel strategy forusing many inexpensive sensors, mounted on the vehicle periphery,and calibrated with a new cross-­modal calibrationtechnique. Lidar, camera, and radar data streams are processedusing an innovative, locally smooth state representation thatprovides robust perception for real­ time autonomous control. Aresilient planning and control architecture has been developedfor driving in traffic, comprised of an innovative combination ofwell­proven algorithms for mission planning, situationalplanning, situational interpretation, and trajectory control. These innovations are being incorporated in two new roboticvehicles equipped for autonomous driving in urban environments,with extensive testing on a DARPA site visit course. Experimentalresults demonstrate all basic navigation and some basic trafficbehaviors, including unoccupied autonomous driving, lanefollowing using pure-­pursuit control and our local frameperception strategy, obstacle avoidance using kino-­dynamic RRTpath planning, U-­turns, and precedence evaluation amongst othercars at intersections using our situational interpreter. We areworking to extend these approaches to advanced navigation andtraffic scenarios

The comparative Situation Awareness performance of older (to younger) drivers

The overall aim of this thesis is to corroborate whether the Situation Awareness (SA) of older drivers is deficient to that of younger driving groups, due to the onset of age-related cognitive decrements. This is important to ascertain due to a presumed linkage between the concept and accident causation. In addition, the research undertaken to date to investigate this linkage has exclusively utilised rather artificial driving simulators and simulations. Thus there is a need for data from more ecologically valid methods. The research studies reported here have sought to preference on-road assessments (of different complexity), and to capture what information was selectively perceived, comprehended and reacted to; rather than, as in previous work, what was recalled. To achieve this, a Think aloud methodology was chosen to produce narratives of a driver s thoughts. This method was advantageously unobtrusiveness, but also flexible - it could additionally be used to compare an individual's SA to a driving performance measure, Hazard Perception. The driving-based studies undertaken found that for a relatively non-taxing route, an older driver group could produce cohesive awareness in parity with a younger driver group. However, the concepts from which that awareness was based upon drew more on general, direction based, concepts, in contrast to the younger group s focus on more specific, action based, concepts, and rearward and safety-related cues. For a more cognitively taxing route, the younger group produced significantly higher (p<0.024) individual SA-related scores than their older counterparts. But the concepts/cues both groups relied upon remained similar - particularly in regards to the ratio of those indicative of a rearward and/or a safety-related focus. In a video-based study, however, and in contrast, the older driver group s SA scores improved sufficient to outperform a younger group, but, despite this, not for video-based scores indicative of Hazard Perception (HP). In this latter regard, age-related decrements appeared to be more influential, as the older group felt they were under time pressure during a HP test. However, the difficulty this presented appeared to advantageously bring more attention and effort to the task, which were argued as important factors for the uplift in their SA scoring. The thesis also showed that older groups judgement of the actual complexity of a driving task could potentially be deficient to that of younger driver groups. This could cause problems as incorrect perceptions could deflate the relevance and cohesiveness of information being processing. In contrast, the perceived complexity of a task could bring a rise or fall in SA score for both groups. Such results raised questions as to the impact of cognitive decrements, relative to task difficulty and related effort whilst driving. It also provided evidence that Situation Awareness, rather than being uniformly good or bad, could, like any other psychological construct, be prone to change. These aspects were drawn together in a proposed model of driving SA

Critical infrastructure lifelines and the politics of anthropocentric resilience

The discourse of resilience has increasingly been utilised to advance the political prioritisation of enhanced security and to extend the performance of risk management in the Anthropocene. This has been notably advanced through integrated approaches that engage with uncertainty, complexity and volatility in order to survive and thrive in the future. Within this context, and drawing on findings from a number of EU-wide research projects tasked with operationalising critical infrastructure resilience, this paper provides a much- needed assessment of how resilience ideas are shaping how critical infrastructure providers and operators deal with complex risks to ‘lifeline’ systems and networks, whilst also illuminating the tensions elicited in the paradigm shift from protective-based risk management towards adaptive-based resilience. In doing so, we also draw attention to the implications of this transition for organisational governance and for the political ecologies of the Anthropocene that calls for more holistic, adaptable and equitable ways of assessing and working with risk across multiple systems, networks and scales

Urban Diversity, Social Cohesion, and Place Vitality in Songjiang New Town, Shanghai

학위논문 (박사) -- 서울대학교 대학원 : 환경대학원 협동과정 조경학, 2020. 8. 김세훈.Urban diversity is a multi-faceted subject studied in various fields of social science including urban design, planning, and housing policy. It is recognized as a normative value necessary to achieve place vitality and social equity in urban environments. However, the large-scale New Towns in China or other developing countries are often criticized for lacking urban diversity due to its uniform physical landscape and social environment. This study challenges this notion based on mass internal migration and the various development trajectories embodied in New Towns in transitional China and aims to understand the places of urban diversity in depth and examine how diversity relates to creating socially sustainable communities. The study area is Songjiang New Town, an outer suburb approximately 40km distance away from Shanghai. Songjiang New Town is the epitome of the metropolitan expansion strategy of the early 2000s in post-reform China. Songjiang originally was an ancient city that flourished during the Ming and Qing dynasties which became incorporated as a satellite city of Shanghai in the 1950s. There was very little urban development up until the 1980s, however, due to the rapid economic growth and emergence of the entrepreneurial local government, Songjiang became designated as one of the nine strategic New towns of Shanghai to support the continued growth of the mother city. The first chapter aims to offer a general understanding of where and how diversity occurs in this new second-tier urban terrain by measuring housing and social diversity of four neighborhoods using the entropy index. Through this, a nuanced understanding of diversity was captured depending on the locational characteristics of the neighborhoods. The old town was highly diverse due to the gradual and incremental development, while the newly built center was also highly diverse especially in regards to housing type and price generated through the housing market. Additionally, in areas where discrepancies between housing and social diversity were found, young migrant workers were subject to limited housing opportunities while relocatees from Shanghai were spatially separated from commodity housing residents, creating the adverse effects of diversity. In the second chapter, 53 housing estates were analyzed using the cluster analysis considering housing and social diversity, and social ties in order to extrapolate characteristics of estates that were both diverse and socially cohesive. The chapter revealed that there was a trade-off between diversity and social ties: diversity was only found to be moderate in estates with a high number of social ties. In view of this, the chapter suggested that moderate levels of social diversity may be encouraged in new housing developments while ensuring wide housing choices which would allow the laissez-faire development of diverse and socially sustainable communities. The chapter also highlighted that creating an environment that supports contact between a diverse group of residents may be important especially through ensuring a close-knitted internal street layout. Based on this, the third chapter sought to further identify the places of contact related to high diversity and social ties by categorizing street patterns and green area layout of individual housing estates. The streets were divided into two types, the grid and the loop layout, and the green area into the centralized, dispersed, and strip layout. Housing estates with high diversity and social ties commonly had high street intersection density regardless of street layout type. In terms of green area layout, the centralized layout with low green area ratio estates was found to coincide with high diversity and social ties. The results illustrated the importance of a close-knitted street intersection, and showed that a high green area ratio was not necessary as this often resulted in places of aesthetic value but not supportive of the transient small-scale activities within the community. Finally, the fourth chapter depicted how understanding local knowledge and information is essential for ensuring the effectiveness of a disaster vulnerability mitigation plan. This extends its significance to understanding the normative aspects of urban design, such as urban diversity and social cohesion, with respect to its specific context, especially in the case of China which has experienced radical socioeconomic changes. The engendered urban diversity and the pivotal changes in social cohesion are related to the unparalleled juxtaposition of pre-reform conditions against modern changes: the economic reforms had led to housing reforms and entrepreneurial urban development, conjoined by mass internal migration. Illustrating how familiar concepts function under specific conditions may offer a nuanced understanding of the normative aspects and contribute to the urban design discourse.도시 다양성은 도시설계 및 계획과 주택정책, 경제 등의 사회과학 분야에서 연구되는 주제로서 도시 내 장소활력과 사회적 평등 달성을 위해 필요한 규범적 요소로서 논의된다. 반면에 중국 또는 다수의 개발도상국에서의 대규모 신도시 건설은 획일된 물리적 경관과 사회적 특성으로 인해 도시 다양성이 말살된 장소로서 비판의 대상으로 인식되고 있다. 그러나 경제개혁 이후 중국도시 및 사회, 정책적 변화를 감안한다면 이러한 대규모 신도시 개발이 단순히 다양성이 부재한 장소라고 주장하기에 어려운 점이 있다. 거시적인 측면에서 특히 교외도시는 신도시로 개발되기 이전 모도시(mother city)의 위성도시 혹은 산업지구로 지정되어 발전된 경우가 많으며 내재되어 있던 도시 맥락이 새로운 개발행위로 인해 재구조화되는 맥락을 지닌다. 더불어, 중국 대도시 내·외로 대규모 인구이동이 이루어지면서 중국의 도시 주변부는 사회경제적 다양성을 내재하는 장소로 발전하였다. 이러한 배경 아래, 본 연구는 중국 신도시를 대상으로 도시 다양성이 발현되는 장소들을 보다 심도 있게 이해하고, 다양성과 도시 활력의 지표가 되는 사회적 혼합 간 관계를 살펴보고자 한다. 본 연구의 대상지는 상하이시에서 약 40km 떨어진 중국 송지앙 뉴타운이다. 송지앙은 명·청나라 때 번성했던 중국 남동지역의 대표적 도시였으나 이후 상하이시의 부상으로 인해 1950년대 들어 상하이시의 위성도시로 편입되었다가 1990년대에는 산업 개발구와 수출가공업 지구로 지정되었었다. 중국의 급격한 경제성장 및 분세제 등의 요인이 작용한 결과 2000년대 초반 뉴타운 건설이 활발히 이루어졌는데, 이 시기에 송지앙 역시 상하이시의 9개 전략적 뉴타운 (One city nine towns plan) 중 하나로서 발돋움하며 국제 마스터플랜 공모 운영 및 수립을 통해 개발되었다. 첫 번째 장은 연구대상지 내 4개 근린구역의 주택 및 사회적 다양성을 엔트로피 지수를 이용하여 측정하는 연구이다. 이를 통해 마스터플랜 상의 지리적 위치 및 위상에 따라 상이한 다양성의 양상을 전반적으로 파악하였으며, 기존의 구도심과 뉴타운 개발 사업을 통해 새롭게 조성된 중심지의 주거 및 사회적 다양성이 가장 높은 것으로 측정 되었다. 구도심의 도시 다양성은 점진적 개발을 통해 기존 도시 조직 및 건축물이 보존됨으로서 담보되는 한편, 신도시의 중심지에 해당하는 구역은 주택시장을 통한 다양한 주거형태 및 가격 조성으로 인해 다양성이 매우 높게 측정되는 것으로 나타났다. 이외 주택 및 사회적 다양성 간 간극이 발생한 구역에서는 서비스업 종사 타 지역 호구 이주민들이 낮은 주택 다양성으로 인해 주거 선택이 제한된다는 것과 상하이 구도심 강제 이주민들이 상품주택 거주민들과 분리되어 다양성의 긍정적 효과를 거두지 못하는 것으로 드러났다. 두 번째 장에서는 53개 주택단지를 분석단위로 개별 주택 유형 및 면적 다양성, 사회적 다양성과 사회적 혼합의 측면을 고려하여 클러스터 분석을 수행하였다. 이를 통해 두 측면 간 양자간의 관계(trade-off)가 존재함을 밝혔다. 다시 말해, 사회적 혼합과 다양성이 모두 높은 단지는 존재하지 않았으나 사회적 혼합이 높은 단지에서 다양성이 보통의 수준으로 나타난다는 것을 밝혔다. 그러나 다양성이 낮은 동질성에 기반한 주택단지에서도 사회적 혼합이 낮게 나타나는 등 사회적 동질성이 반드시 높은 사회적 혼합의 전제조건이 되는 것이 아니라는 것을 밝혔다. 더불어, 클러스터별 주택 특성들을 살펴본 결과, 건축시기가 오래된 단지 및 내부 가로 체계가 보다 세부적으로 짜여진 단지에서 사회적 혼합이 높은 것으로 나타나는 등 다양한 거주민 간 접촉이 이루어지도록 환경을 조성하는 것이 중요함을 밝혔다. 이를 바탕으로 세 번째 장은 가로 체계와 녹지 공간을 유형화하여 주택의 물리적 다양성 및 사회적 혼합이 높은 주거단지의 특성을 도출하고자 하였다. 가로는 두 가지 형태, 그리드(grid) 또는 루프(loop) 레이아웃으로 구분하여 살펴보았는데, 다양성 및 사회적 혼합이 높은 주거단지는 공통적으로 교차로 빈도가 높은 것으로 드러났다. 더불어, 녹지 공간은 중앙에 배치되어 있거나 분산배치 또는 주택지 경계 위주로 배치되어 있는 유형으로 구분하였는데, 다양성 및 사회적 혼합이 높은 주거단지는 녹지가 중앙 배치되어 있으면서 녹지율이 낮은 특성을 나타냈다. 이를 통해 가로 유형과 관계없이 세밀한 가로체계를 확보함으로서 거주민 간 다양한 접촉이 이루어지도록 하는 것이 중요하며, 높은 녹지율 확보를 통해 미적 가치가 부각된 공공영역 보다는 거주민들의 커뮤니티 내 소규모 활동들을 지지할 수 있는 녹지공간이 필요함을 시사하였다. 마지막으로 네 번째 장은 화산으로 인한 재해 취약성이 높은 지역을 대상으로 진행된 계획 및 설계 스튜디오의 제안을 검토함으로서 현지 지식 및 정보를 활용하는 것이 재해계획의 실효성 확보를 위해 필수적임을 시사하였다. 이러한 결과는 또한 도시 다양성 및 사회적 혼합과 같은 도시의 규범적 요소들이 급진적인 사회경제적 변화를 경험한 중국과 같은 특수한 맥락에서는 개별적으로 이해되어야 함을 의미하며, 또한 기존의 규범들이 어떻게 변형 및 작동하는지 이해함으로서 도시설계 담론에 기여할 수 있음을 의미한다.Introduction 1 Chapter 1. Measuring urban diversity of Songjiang New Town: A re-configuration of a Chinese suburb 5 1. Introduction 5 2. Data and Method 11 3. Results 19 4. Discussion 29 Chapter 2. Understanding the diversity and social cohesion balance in Songjiang New Town, Shanghai 32 1. Introduction 32 2. Data and Method 41 3. Results 48 4. Discussion 59 Chapter 3. Toward subtle integration: Built environment characteristics of socially cohesive and diverse urban spaces 62 1. Introduction 62 2. Data and Method 69 3. Results 75 4. Discussion 85 Chapter 4. Living in harmony with disaster: Exploring volcanic hazard vulnerability in Indonesia 88 1. Introduction 88 2. Data and Method 93 3. Results 99 4. Discussion 106 Conclusion 109 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 112 REFERENCES 113 ABSTRACT IN KOREAN 121Docto