Approaches Used to Recognise and Decipher Ancient Inscriptions: A Review

Inscriptions play a vital role in historical studies. In order to boost tourism and academic necessities, archaeological experts, epigraphers and researchers recognised and deciphered a great number of inscriptions using numerous approaches. Due to the technological revolution and inefficiencies of manual methods, humans tend to use automated systems. Hence, computational archaeology plays an important role in the current era. Even though different types of research are conducted in this domain, it still poses a big challenge and needs more accurate and efficient methods. This paper presents a review of manual and computational approaches used to recognise and decipher ancient inscriptions.Keywords: ancient inscriptions, computational archaeology, decipher, script

Building the 'Sri Lankan nation' through education: The identity politics of teaching history in a multicultural post-war society

Abstract Driven by the overarching objective of promoting reconciliation through education, this thesis strives to unpack the first national goal of education set out by the Sri Lankan Ministry of Education, which involves nation building and the establishment of a Sri Lankan identity through the promotion of social cohesion and the recognition of cultural diversity in Sri Lanka’s plural society. Within education, history teaching in secondary school acts as the main focus of the research, due to the relevance of this goal to the subject of history as well as the ability of history to shape the attitudes and perceptions of youth. As such, the original contribution of this thesis is the development of an understanding of how the goal of nation building is being carried out through the Sri Lankan education system by focusing on the subject of history, which in turn facilitates an analysis of the identity politics of teaching history in a multicultural post-war society. With the intention of developing such an understanding, the study aims to answer three research questions: 1) What type of nation is being built through history education in Sri Lanka?; 2) How is the ethnic and religious diversity which characterises the Sri Lankan nation being dealt with through history education?; and 3) How are Sri Lankan youth being aided in understanding the sensitive matters which impeded the nation building exercise in the recent past and resulted in the break out of the ethnic conflict? The thesis draws on an inductive approach, using qualitative research and secondary literature. Findings are generated from field work and textbook analysis. Conducted in four different districts around the country chosen based on their ethnic and religious compositions, field work involves the conducting of interviews with youth, history teachers, curriculum developers, textbook writers and other academics. This thesis argues that an ambiguity regarding the composition of the ‘Sri Lankan nation’ is being created through history education, with it sometimes being characterised as a purely Sinhalese-Buddhist nation instead of a multicultural one. This is most likely because the prominent players involved in the development of the curriculum themselves appear to be conflicted about the monoethnic versus polyethnic nature of the nation, with their views filtering through to the educational materials they produce. It is evident that the history curriculum predominantly contains Sinhalese-Buddhist history, with little information being conveyed about the history of the minority groups. Tamils and Muslims are portrayed as invaders and outsiders since the national story is narrated through the perspective of the Sinhalese-Buddhist community who play the role of the protagonist. With respect to stakeholder reactions, there appears to be a contrast in the attitudes of Tamil and Muslim youth regarding the portrayal of minority history, with Tamils being vocal about their anger towards the perceived bias, but Muslims being reluctant to discuss ethnic matters, preferring to sweep them under the rug. Finally, in terms of the ethnically sensitive matters in recent history, while some are completely omitted from the history lessons, others are narrated through a majoritarian perspective or glossed over by leaving out key pieces of information. Youth are therefore largely unaware of the contentious matters that led to the breakdown of ethnic relations in the country, despite having lived through a brutal ethnic conflict. These findings indicate the failings of the nation building exercise being carried out through history education. Instead of building a strong Sri Lankan identity, this type of education is creating confusion regarding the composition of the nation and adversely affecting the sense of belonging of minority youth. It is also creating a younger generation who are unaware of their country’s past troubles. The recent spate of ethnic and religious violence that shook the nation highlight the need to address these weaknesses in a timely manner, with a view to promoting reconciliation through education.My PhD was funded by a Cambridge International Scholarship from the Cambridge Commonwealth, European and International Trust and a Bursary from the Centre of Development Studies, University of Cambridge

Teaching English as a Second Language in an Urban Public University in Sri Lanka : A Reflective Paper

The purpose of this Master of Arts (MA) thesis is threefold: First, this reflective paper provides a critical literature review on English Language Teaching (ELT) in Sri Lanka. Second, this reflective paper presents seven guiding principles which will steer my English as a Second Language (ESL) teaching in an urban public university in Sri Lanka. Third, drawing from the seven guiding principles, this reflective paper presents a complete syllabus and three assignments as concrete examples (attached as appendixes) which will be implemented in a College of Humanities and Social Sciences in an urban public university in Sri Lanka. The importance of the present reflective paper can be summarized under four main points: First, the critical literature review could help researchers and practitioners to better understand the complex linguistic situation and ELT in Sri Lanka. Second, based on the seven guiding principles I will have a new syllabus which will be implemented in my ESL classes in an urban public university in Sri Lanka. After the implementation of the syllabus, I will reflect on my experience of implementing the syllabus and improve the syllabus further. Third, the seven guiding principles which will inform my future practice as an ESL teacher are transferable to English dominated post-colonial countries such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and so on. As a novice ESL teacher in an urban public university in Sri Lanka, one of the challenges I faced was the lack of a formal syllabus for my ESL classes. It gave rise to multiple issues in relation to teaching methodology, lesson planning, and teaching materials, resulting in the dissatisfaction of my students and myself. It was the lack of a formal syllabus for my ESL classes that motivated me to design a syllabus for an intermediate level ESL course in an urban public university in Sri Lanka. I believe that the new syllabus steered by the seven guiding principles presented in this MA thesis will create a new synergy in my future ESL classrooms

From fear to collaboration : community peacebuilding in the context of a victor’s peace in Sri Lanka

This thesis focuses on the relatively under-research disciplinary area of community based peacebuilding in the context of victor’s peace in Sri Lanka following the state’s civil war with the Tamil Tigers. These events led to several challenges for liberal peacebuilding, including persistent militarisation, and indeed a decade after the end of the civil war, most of these socioeconomic, and political challenges remain unresolved due to the high level of militarisation. In such circumstances, community peacebuilding efforts appear to be particularly challenging. It has thus been suggested that the area of community peacebuilding requires more research and the inclusion of more elements that integrate local knowledge and cultural practices. This study provides a contextual understanding of contemporary community peacebuilding practices within a context of victor’s peace in Sri Lanka, especially the post-war challenges facing minority communities. The prevailing practice in community development in the Asia Pacific leans towards a top-down approach, despite community development being driven bottom up. There is a need for a new approach to community development. This study adopts an interdisciplinary approach to examine the interplay between community development and peacebuilding. Considering the importance of local peace, Lederach’s peacebuilding pyramid is used as the theoretical approach for this study. that it is imperative that peacebuilding is developed from the periphery of communities with the support of non-profit and grassroots organisations. Findings from four selected case study towns of Negombo, Killinochchi, Mullaitivu and Kurunagala indicate that encouraging local participation and incorporating local knowledge into their activities enhances inter-ethnic relations. Through these projects, a safe space was provided for self-expression and dialogue, which played a crucial role in the process of post-war community peacebuilding. Thus, community leaders took charge of reducing tensions between communities by promoting social solidarity. These micro solidarities within communities foster non-violent coexistence in divided societies. This study contributes significantly to the literature on post-war peacebuilding and community development through its detailed study of victor’s peace in Sri Lanka, which offers an insight into aspects of community peacebuilding. Key argument of the study is that top-down approach of victor’s peace hinders the ability of voluntary sector and the communities for peace. This study posits that voluntary sector in conjunction with community leaders strengthen capacities and raise awareness within communities on social, political, and economic contradictions causing for their oppression

A study of multicultural practices in Sri Lankan secondary schools and an English comparator school

A thesis submitted to the University of Bedfordshire, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of PhilosophyThis study investigated stakeholders’ views of multicultural policies and practices in multicultural secondary schools in Sri Lanka and a comparator school in England, in order to elicit what new insights could be gained that could lead to educational improvements in Sri Lankan schools. Specifically, students and staff in five Sinhala-medium secondary schools in the Colombo region, all with reputations for good multicultural education practice, together with local community leaders and national policy makers, were interviewed. A series of questionnaires was designed to examine a wide range of stakeholder perspectives across these five schools, using as a conceptual framework Banks’s (1986, 1989 and 2004) international work on multicultural policy and practice in schools and teacher education. A similar interview schedule and questionnaire were used to elicit views and experiences of multicultural education in a comparator school in an urban area of the East of England. There were a number of reasons for this. The modern school system of Sri Lanka had its beginnings during the British colonial administration. Now that there is peace in Sri Lanka after a long period of civil war, the government is focusing on ways to develop the curriculum to integrate multicultural education into its peace education curriculum in order to foster intercultural understandings. England has a longer tradition in multicultural education and policies in its education system. Using Banks’s work (op. cit.) for analysis, there may therefore be lessons to be drawn from the Sri Lankan schools identified as having good multicultural practice and the English experience that are of use in Sri Lanka. Major findings from this research project include the need for careful consideration of ways to foster greater multilingual competence among both teachers and students if Sri Lanka is to reach its goal of greater intercultural understandings and communication between the various ethnic groups. It seems from this study that, in Sri Lanka, whilst there were some differences in the strength of perception of different ethnic groups of students, overall they felt comfortable and safe in school, which is a testament to government efforts to achieve harmony in schools and, thus, social cohesion in society. However, some groups of students are more advantaged than others in the same schools in their access to the acquisition of languages and, therefore, access to the curriculum and to further and higher education and future enhanced life chances. The teachers acknowledged that language was a major concern in multicultural classrooms, partly because some students could not communicate effectively in Sinhala medium, and partly because they themselves were not always fluent in both national languages. Further, despite central government policy that all secondary teachers in Sri Lanka should be trained to degree level and should be qualified in their profession, the highest qualification that nearly one half possessed was A-level General Certificate of Education. All teachers in both Sri Lankan, and the English comparator, schools expressed a wish for training in multicultural practices

Samanantar: The Largest Publicly Available Parallel Corpora Collection for 11 Indic Languages

We present Samanantar, the largest publicly available parallel corpora collection for Indic languages. The collection contains a total of 49.7 million sentence pairs between English and 11 Indic languages (from two language families). Specifically, we compile 12.4 million sentence pairs from existing, publicly-available parallel corpora, and additionally mine 37.4 million sentence pairs from the web, resulting in a 4x increase. We mine the parallel sentences from the web by combining many corpora, tools, and methods: (a) web-crawled monolingual corpora, (b) document OCR for extracting sentences from scanned documents, (c) multilingual representation models for aligning sentences, and (d) approximate nearest neighbor search for searching in a large collection of sentences. Human evaluation of samples from the newly mined corpora validate the high quality of the parallel sentences across 11 languages. Further, we extract 83.4 million sentence pairs between all 55 Indic language pairs from the English-centric parallel corpus using English as the pivot language. We trained multilingual NMT models spanning all these languages on Samanantar, which outperform existing models and baselines on publicly available benchmarks, such as FLORES, establishing the utility of Samanantar. Our data and models are available publicly at https://indicnlp.ai4bharat.org/samanantar/ and we hope they will help advance research in NMT and multilingual NLP for Indic languages.Comment: Accepted to the Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics (TACL