A discourse in conflict : resolving the definitional uncertainty of cyber war : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment for the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Defence and Security Studies at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand

Since emerging in academic literature in the 1990s, definitions of ‘cyber war’ and cyber warfare’ have been notably inconsistent. There has been no research that examines these inconsistencies and whether they can be resolved. Using the methodology of discourse analysis, this thesis addresses this research need. Analysis has identified that the study of cyber war and cyber warfare is inherently inter-disciplinary. The most prominent academic disciplines contributing definitions are Strategic Studies, Security Studies, Information and Communications Technology, Law, and Military Studies. Despite the apparent definitional uncertainty, most researchers do not offer formal definitions of cyber war or cyber warfare. Moreover, there is little evidentiary basis in literature to distinguish between cyber war and cyber warfare. Proximate analysis of definitions of cyber war and cyber warfare suggests a high level of inconsistency between dozens of definitions. However, through deeper analysis of both the relationships between definitions and their underlying structure, this thesis demonstrates that (a) the relationships between definitions can be represented hierarchically, through a discourse hierarchy of definitions; and (b) all definitions share a common underlying structure, accessible through the application of a structural definition model. Crucially, analysis of definitions via these constructs allows a foundational definition of cyber war and cyber warfare to be identified. Concomitantly, use of the model identifies the areas of greatest inter-definitional inconsistency and the implications thereof and contributes to the construction of a taxonomy of definitions of cyber war and cyber warfare. Considered holistically, these research outputs allow for significant resolution of the inconsistency between definitions. Moreover, these outputs provide a basis for the emergence of dominant functional definitions that may aid in the development of policy, strategy, and doctrine

The Evolution of Cyber Conflicts and its Impact on International Security: A Comprehensive analysis

openThe rapid advancement of technology has given rise to a new form of warfare known as cyber conflicts. As our world becomes increasingly interconnected, the importance of understanding the historical development and impact of cyber conflicts on international security has become paramount. This thesis aims to provide a comprehensive historical analysis of cyber conflicts and their implications for global security. The objectives of this research are to examine the historical development of cyber conflicts, investigate different types of cyber conflicts, and analyze their effects on state behavior within the broader context of international security. By delving into case studies, conducting a thorough literature review, and employing relevant theoretical frameworks, this study aims to provide valuable insights into the evolving landscape of cyber conflicts and their intersection with traditional warfare. The research will begin by tracing the historical evolution of cyber conflicts, exploring their origins, and highlighting significant milestones that have shaped the field. It will delve into the development of cyber warfare tactics, the emergence of state-sponsored cyber attacks, and the changing motivations behind cyber conflicts. Furthermore, we will investigate different types of cyber conflicts, including cyber espionage, cyber warfare, hacktivism, and cyber terrorism. By analyzing their characteristics, tactics, and objectives, a comprehensive typology of cyber conflicts will be developed, aiding in understanding the diverse nature of this complex domain. The research will also explore the impact of cyber conflicts on state behavior within the broader context of international security. It will examine how cyber attacks and cyber capabilities shape the strategies, decision-making processes, and military doctrines of states. The interplay between cyber conflicts and traditional conventional warfare will be analyzed, shedding light on their interconnectedness and the evolving nature of global security dynamics. Ultimately, one of the main aims within this research is to assess the implications of cyber conflicts for international security. It will explore the challenges posed by cyber threats to national security, the stability of international relations, and the effectiveness of existing security mechanisms. By drawing on case studies, theoretical frameworks, and expert analysis, this study seeks to contribute to academic knowledge, inform policy discussions, and provide a foundation for further research in this critical and rapidly evolving field.The rapid advancement of technology has given rise to a new form of warfare known as cyber conflicts. As our world becomes increasingly interconnected, the importance of understanding the historical development and impact of cyber conflicts on international security has become paramount. This thesis aims to provide a comprehensive historical analysis of cyber conflicts and their implications for global security. The objectives of this research are to examine the historical development of cyber conflicts, investigate different types of cyber conflicts, and analyze their effects on state behavior within the broader context of international security. By delving into case studies, conducting a thorough literature review, and employing relevant theoretical frameworks, this study aims to provide valuable insights into the evolving landscape of cyber conflicts and their intersection with traditional warfare. The research will begin by tracing the historical evolution of cyber conflicts, exploring their origins, and highlighting significant milestones that have shaped the field. It will delve into the development of cyber warfare tactics, the emergence of state-sponsored cyber attacks, and the changing motivations behind cyber conflicts. Furthermore, we will investigate different types of cyber conflicts, including cyber espionage, cyber warfare, hacktivism, and cyber terrorism. By analyzing their characteristics, tactics, and objectives, a comprehensive typology of cyber conflicts will be developed, aiding in understanding the diverse nature of this complex domain. The research will also explore the impact of cyber conflicts on state behavior within the broader context of international security. It will examine how cyber attacks and cyber capabilities shape the strategies, decision-making processes, and military doctrines of states. The interplay between cyber conflicts and traditional conventional warfare will be analyzed, shedding light on their interconnectedness and the evolving nature of global security dynamics. Ultimately, one of the main aims within this research is to assess the implications of cyber conflicts for international security. It will explore the challenges posed by cyber threats to national security, the stability of international relations, and the effectiveness of existing security mechanisms. By drawing on case studies, theoretical frameworks, and expert analysis, this study seeks to contribute to academic knowledge, inform policy discussions, and provide a foundation for further research in this critical and rapidly evolving field

An emergent security risk : critical infrastructures and information warfare

This paper examines the emergent security risk that information warfare poses to critical infrastructure systems, particularly as governments are increasingly concerned with protecting these assets against attack or disruption. Initially it outlines critical infrastructure systems and the notion of information warfare. It then discusses the potential implications and examining the concerns and vulnerabilities such cyber attacks would pose, utilising exemplar online attack occurrences. It then examines the current Australian situation before suggesting some considerations to mitigate the potential risk that information warfare poses to critical infrastructure systems, and by association: government, industry and the wider community.<br /

Cyber Warfare and the Crime of Aggression: The Need for Individual Accountability on Tomorrow’s Battlefield

As cyberspace matures, the international system faces a new challenge in confronting the use of force. Non-State actors continue to grow in importance, gaining the skill and the expertise necessary to wage asymmetric warfare using non-traditional weaponry that can create devastating real-world consequences. The international legal system must adapt to this battleground and provide workable mechanisms to hold aggressive actors accountable for their actions. The International Criminal Court--the only criminal tribunal in the world with global reach--holds significant promise in addressing this threat. The Assembly of State Parties should construct the definition of aggression to include these emerging challenges. By structuring the definition to confront the challenges of cyberspace--specifically non-State actors, the disaggregation of warfare, and new conceptions of territoriality--the International Criminal Court can become a viable framework of accountability for the wars of the twenty-first century

Hybrid threats, cyber warfare and NATO's comprehensive approach for countering 21st century threats: mapping the new frontier of global risk and security management

The end of the so-called ‘Cold War’ has seen a change in the nature of present threats and with it to the overall role and mission of NATO, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. The collapse of the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact in 1991 also removed the original raison d’etre of the Alliance: the prospect of having to repel a Soviet led attack by the Warsaw Pact on the West through the so called ‘Fulda gap’ in Germany (referring to the German lowlands between Frankfurt am Main and the former East German border which was regarded as the most likely terrain for an armour led Soviet breakout) was replaced by the recognition of the need to counter new – often hybrid – threats, which have little in common with bygone acts of interstate aggression. These new, modern threats to global peace, prosperity and security seriously threaten the present steady state environment at home (before the backdrop of the ongoing asymmetric conflicts in Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iraq) and warrant a comprehensive, multi-stakeholder driven response. Multimodal, low intensity, kinetic as well as non-kinetic threats to international peace and security including cyber war, low intensity asymmetric conflict scenarios, global terrorism, piracy, transnational organized crime, demographic challenges, resources security, retrenchment from globalization and the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction were identified by NATO as so called “Hybrid Threats” (cf BI-SC Input for a New NATO Capstone Concept for The Military Contribution to Countering Hybrid Enclosure 1 to 1500/CPPCAM/FCR/10-270038 and 5000 FXX/0100/TT-0651/SER: NU0040, dated 25 August 2010). NATO’s Bi-Strategic Command Capstone Concept describes these Hybrid Threats as ‘those posed by adversaries, with the ability to simultaneously employ conventional and non-conventional means adaptively in pursuit of their objectives.’ (See Hybrid Threats Description in 1500/CPPCAM/FCR/10-270038 and 5000 FXX/0100/TT-0651/SER: NU0040 dated 25 August 2010: Paragraph 7). Having identified this kind of emerging threat, NATO is working on a comprehensive conceptual framework, (the Capstone Concept) which provides the framework for identifying and discussing such threats and possible multi-stakeholder responses. In essence, Hybrid Threats faced by NATO and its non-military partners require a comprehensive approach allowing a wide spectrum of responses, kinetic and non-kinetic by military and non-military actors (see “Updated List of Tasks for the Implementation of the Comprehensive Approach Action Plan and the Lisbon Summit Decisions on the Comprehensive Approach”, dated 4 march 2011, p 1-10, paragraph 1). NATO Allied Command Transformation (ACT) supported by the US Joint Forces Command Joint Irregular Warfare Centre (USJFCOM JIWC) and the US National Defence University (NDU) conducted specialised workshops related to “Assessing Emerging Security Challenges in the Globalised Environment (Countering Hybrid Threats) Experiment” in 2011(cf NATO’s Transnet network on Countering Hybrid Threats (CHT) at https://transnet.act.nato.int/WISE/Transforma1/ACTIPT/JOUIPT). The workshops of the experiment took place in Brussels, Belgium and Tallinn, Estonia and had the aim of identifying possible threats and to discuss some or the key implications that need to be addressed in countering such risks & challenges. Essential is the hypothesis that such a response will have to be in partnership with other stakeholders such as international and regional organizations as well as representatives of business and commerce. This short article introduces the reader to a new form of global threat scenario and the possibilities of response and deterrence within their wider legal and political context