EDA Solutions for Double Patterning Lithography

Expanding the optical lithography to 32-nm node and beyond is impossible using existing single exposure systems. As such, double patterning lithography (DPL) is the most promising option to generate the required lithography resolution, where the target layout is printed with two separate imaging processes. Among different DPL techniques litho-etch-litho-etch (LELE) and self-aligned double patterning (SADP) methods are the most popular ones, which apply two complete exposure lithography steps and an exposure lithography followed by a chemical imaging process, respectively. To realize double patterning lithography, patterns located within a sub-resolution distance should be assigned to either of the imaging sub-processes, so-called layout decomposition. To achieve the optimal design yield, layout decomposition problem should be solved with respect to characteristics and limitations of the applied DPL method. For example, although patterns can be split between the two sub-masks in the LELE method to generate conflict free masks, this pattern split is not favorable due to its sensitivity to lithography imperfections such as the overlay error. On the other hand, pattern split is forbidden in SADP method because it results in non-resolvable gap failures in the final image. In addition to the functional yield, layout decomposition affects parametric yield of the designs printed by double patterning. To deal with both functional and parametric challenges of DPL in dense and large layouts, EDA solutions for DPL are addressed in this thesis. To this end, we proposed a statistical method to determine the interconnect width and space for the LELE method under the effect of random overlay error. In addition to yield maximization and achieving near-optimal trade-off between different parametric requirements, the proposed method provides valuable insight about the trend of parametric and functional yields in future technology nodes. Next, we focused on self-aligned double patterning and proposed layout design and decomposition methods to provide SADP-compatible layouts and litho-friendly decomposed layouts. Precisely, a grid-based ILP formulation of SADP decomposition was proposed to avoid decomposition conflicts and improve overall printability of layout patterns. To overcome the limited applicability of this ILP-based method to fully-decomposable layouts, a partitioning-based method is also proposed which is faster than the grid-based ILP decomposition method too. Moreover, an A∗-based SADP-aware detailed routing method was proposed which performs detailed routing and layout decomposition simultaneously to avoid litho-limited layout configurations. The proposed router preserves the uniformity of pattern density between the two sub-masks of the SADP process. We finally extended our decomposition method for double patterning to triple patterning and formulated SATP decomposition by integer linear programming. In addition to conventional minimum width and spacing constraints, the proposed decomposition method minimizes the mandrel-trim co-defined edges and maximizes the layout features printed by structural spacers to achieve the minimum pattern distortion. This thesis is one of the very early researches that investigates the concept of litho-friendliness in SADP-aware layout design and decomposition. Provided by experimental results, the proposed methods advance prior state-of-the-art algorithms in various aspects. Precisely, the suggested SADP decomposition methods improve total length of sensitive trim edges, total EPE and overall printability of attempted designs. Additionally, our SADP-detailed routing method provides SADP-decomposable layouts in which trim patterns are highly robust to lithography imperfections. The experimental results for SATP decomposition show that total length of overlay-sensitive layout patterns, total EPE and overall printability of the attempted designs are also improved considerably by the proposed decomposition method. Additionally, the methods in this PhD thesis reveal several insights for the upcoming technology nodes which can be considered for improving the manufacturability of these nodes

Pupil wavefront manipulation for the compensation of mask topography effects in optical nanolithography

As semiconductor optical lithography is pushed to smaller dimensions, resolution enhancement techniques have been required to maintain process yields. For some time, the customization of illumination coherence at the source plane has allowed for the control of diffraction order distribution across the projection lens pupil. Phase shifting at the mask plane has allowed for some phase control as well. However, geometries smaller than the imaging wavelength introduce complex wavefront effects that cannot be corrected at source or mask planes. Three dimensional mask topography effects can cause a pitch dependent defocus (δBF), which can decrease the useable depth of focus (UDOF) across geometry of varying density. Wavefront manipulation at the lens pupil plane becomes necessary to provide the degrees of freedom needed to correct for such effects. The focus of this research is the compensation of such wavefront phase error realized through manipulation of the lens pupil plane, specifically in the form of spherical aberration. The research does not attempt to improve the process window for one particular feature, but rather improve the UDOF in order to make layouts with multiple pitches possible for advanced technology nodes. The research approach adopted in this dissertation includes rigorous simulation, analytical modeling, and experimental measurements. Due to the computational expense of rigorous calculations, a smart genetic algorithm is employed to optimize multiple spherical aberration coefficients. An analytical expression is formulated to predict the best focus shifts due to spherical aberration applied in the lens pupil domain. Rigorously simulated trends of best focus (BF) through pitch and orientation have been replicated by the analytical expression. Experimental validation of compensation using primary and secondary spherical aberration is performed using a high resolution wavefront manipulator. Subwavelength image exposures are performed on four different mask types and three different mask geometries. UDOF limiting δBF is observed on the thin masks for contact holes, and on thick masks for both one directional (1D) and two directional (2D) geometries. For the contact holes, the applied wavefront correction decreases the δBF from 44 nm to 7 nm and increases the UDOF to 109 nm, an 18% improvement. For the 1D geometries on a thick mask, the through pitch UDOF is increased from 59 nm to 108 nm, an 83% improvement. Experimental data also shows that an asymmetric wavefront can be tuned to particular geometries, providing a UDOF improvement for line ends under restricted processing conditions. The experimental data demonstrates that pupil wavefront manipulation has the capability to compensate for mask topography induced δBF. This dissertation recommends that corrective spherical aberration coefficients be used to decrease pitch dependent best focus, increase process yield, and ultimately expand the design domain over parameters such as mask materials and mask feature densities. The effect of spherical aberration applied in the pupil plane is to provide a wavefront solution that is equivalent to complex multiple-level mask compensation methods. This will allow the advantages of thicker masks to be explored for further applications in semiconductor optical lithography

Alternative Lithographic Methods for Variable Aspect Ratio Vias

The foundation of semiconductor industry has historically been driven by scaling. Device size reduction is enabled by increased pattern density, enhancing functionality and effectively reducing cost per chip. Aggressive reductions in memory cell size have resulted in systems with diminishing area between parallel bit/word lines. This affords an even greater challenge in the patterning of contact level features that are inherently difficult to resolve because of their relatively small area, a product of their two domain critical dimension image. To accommodate these trends there has been a shift toward the implementation of elliptical contact features. This empowers designers to maximize the use of free space between bit/word lines and gate stacks while preserving contact area; effectively reducing the minor via axis dimension while maintaining a patternable threshold in increasingly dense circuitry. It is therefore critical to provide methods that enhance the resolving capacity of varying aspect ratio vias for implementation in electronic design systems. This work separately investigates two unique, non-traditional lithographic techniques in the integration of an optical vortex mask as well as a polymer assembly system as means to augment ellipticity while facilitating contact feature scaling. This document affords a fundamental overview of imaging theory, details previous literature as to the technological trends enabling the resolving of contact features and demonstrates simulated & empirical evidence that the described methods have great potential to extend the resolution of variable aspect ratio vias using lithographic technologies

Reduction of Line Edge Roughness (LER) in Interference-Like Large Field Lithography

Line edge roughness (LER) is seen as one of the most crucial challenges to be addressed in advanced technology nodes. In order to alleviate it, several options were explored in this work for the interference-like lithography imaging conditions. The most straight forward option was to scale interference lithography (IL) for large field integrated circuit (IC) applications. IL not only serves as a simple method to create high resolution period patterns, but, it also provides the highest theoretical contrast achievable compared to other optical lithography systems. Higher contrast yields a smaller transition region between the low and high intensity parts of the image, therefore, inherently lowers LER. Two of the challenges that would prohibit scaling IL for large field IC applications were addressed in this work: (1) field size limitations, and (2) magnification correction (i.e., pitch fine-tuning) ability. Experimental results showed less than 0.5 nm pitch adjustment capability using fused silica wedges mounted on rotational stages at 300 nm pitch pattern. A detailed discussion on maximum practical IL field size was outlined by considering the subsequent trim exposures and optical path difference effects between the interfering diffraction orders. The practical limit on the IL field size was assessed to be 10 mm for the conditions specified in this work. One of the contributors of LER is the mask absorber roughness. To mitigate it, two methods were explored that are also applicable to scanners working under interference-like conditions: (1) aerial image averaging via directional translation, and (2) pupil plane filtering. Experiments on pupil plane filtering approach were performed at Imec in Leuven, Belgium, on the ASML:NXT1950i scanner equipped with FlexWAVE wavefront manipulator. Utilizing an optimized phase filter at the pupil plane and a programmed roughness mask, the transfer of 200 nm roughness period to the wafer plane was eliminated. This mitigation effect was found to be strongly dependent on the focus

Scanning evanescent wave lithography for sub-22nm generations

Current assumptions for the limits of immersion optical lithography include NA values at 1.35, largely based on the lack of high-index materials. In this research we have been working with ultra-high NA evanescent wave lithography (EWL) where the NA of the projection system is allowed to exceed the corresponding acceptance angle of one or more materials of the system. This approach is made possible by frustrating the total internal reflection (TIR) evanescent field into propagation. With photoresist as the frustrating media, the allowable gap for adequate exposure latitude is in the sub-100 nm range. Through static imaging, we have demonstrated the ability to resolve 26 nm half-pitch features at 193 nm and 1.85 NA using existing materials. Such imaging could lead to the attainment of 13 nm half-pitch through double patterning. In addition, a scanning EWL imaging system was designed, prototyped with a two-stage gap control imaging head including a DC noise canceling carrying air-bearing, and a AC noise canceling piezoelectric transducer with real-time closed-loop feedback from gap detection. Various design aspects of the system including gap detection, feedback actuation, prism design and fabrication, software integration, and scanning scheme have been carefully considered to ensure sub-100 nm scanning. Experiments performed showed successful gap gauging at sub-100 nm scanning height. Scanning EWL results using a two-beam interference imaging approach achieved pattern resolution comparable to static EWL imaging results. With this scanning EWL approach and the imaging head developed, optical lithography becomes extendable to sub-22 nm generations

Evanescent wave assist features for optical projection lithography

Evanescent Wave Assist Features (EWAFs) are features that are sensitive to near-field radiation that modify diffracted order intensities from photomask patterns. In implementations studied in this thesis, the EWAFs increase a transmitting feature\u27s image contrast and Normalized Image Log Slope (NILS). In this way, the EWAFs are a way to improve image fidelity for high-resolution features. The assist features consist of local, buried grooves located around transmitting mask regions. These grooves reside in otherwise unused areas, since they are located under or on top of opaque mask absorber regions. In these buried locations, they are not optically visible to the lithographic system in a traditional sense. Designs are explored for both top-surface and bottom-surface EWAFs on 1-D and 2-D layouts. Using EWAFs, 27% image contrast improvements have been shown on contact layouts, as well as best-case image contrast improvements of over 2X on 1-D slot-type mask layouts. Dependence of EWAF effect on mask absorber material and bottom-surface relief shape is studied, as well as polarization sensitivity and the role of Surface Plasmon Polaritons (SPP). TM polarized light creates a normal-component field enhancement that amplifies surface waves across suitably conductive absorbers. These waves can then interact with bottom-surface EWAF grooves, and convert to propagating based on grating action. The converted orders may then interact with standard transmitted orders from a transmission feature, resulting in enhancement or suppression, depending on EWAF tone, pitch regime, and illumination angle. A demonstration EWAF sample, as well as a reference sample with no grooves, was fabricated at the RIT SMFL and tested using a Variable Angle Spectroscopic Ellipsometer (VASE). Accounting for pitch deviations during fabrication, as well as lateral inter-layer alignment offsets gives diffracted order responses that agree with SPP resonances observed in the samples at normal incidence and diffracted order enhancement factors that agree with simulation

Dimensional metrology and positioning operations: basics for a spatial layout analysis of measurement systems

Dimensional metrology and positioning operations are used in many fields of particle accelerator projects. This lecture gives the basic tools to designers in the field of measure by analysing the spatial layout of measurement systems since it is central to dimensional metrology as well as positioning operations. In a second part, a case study dedicated to a synchrotron storage ring is proposed from the detection of the magnetic centre of quadrupoles to the orbit definition of the ring.Comment: 60 pages, presented at the CERN Accelerator School CAS 2009: Specialised Course on Magnets, Bruges, 16-25 June 200

Design and development of triangular, spiral, and fractal antennas for radio frequency identification tags

This dissertation reports on the design and development of three compact, non-meandered microstrip patch antennas for ultra high frequency (UHF) radio frequency identification (RFID) applications. The monopole antennas considered in this work are an inset-fed triangular antenna, one arm Archimedes spiral antenna and a Half-Sierpinski fractal antenna. These antennas with small length to width ratios (\u3c 2/1), can be the preferred choice, in the tagging of small size consumer end products, over the ubiquitous meandered dipole antenna (length/width \u3e 5/1), which is often the antenna of choice, due to its high gain for UHF RFID applications. The lengths and widths of all three antennas are less than 5.5 cm. Earlier reports of planar antennas for RFID applications in the UHF range have lengths larger than 9 cm on one side or are developed on a rigid substrate. All three antennas have a surface area of about 30 cm2 and are designed for a flexible polyimide substrate. The new antennas satisfy the requirement of a voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) \u3c 2 and exhibit a gain close to or greater than 0 dBi at the operation frequency of 915 MHz. All three antennas have a return-loss less than -10 dB at 915 MHz and a -10 dB bandwidth greater than 12 MHz. While the triangular and spiral antennas display peak gains of over 2 dBi, the fractal antenna has a gain close to 0 dBi (-0.64 dBi). The effect of ground geometry on the radiation performance of the antennas has been analyzed using ANSOFT Designer software. Slots, aligned to the top patch were introduced in the antenna ground plane to increase the gain of the antennas. The fabricated and tested antennas were then employed in the transmission-delay-line-based passive radio-frequency identification tag. The location of the antenna with respect to the transmission line on the tag was found to affect the radiation pattern of the antenna. A circular disc monopole antenna having a gain of 8.88 dBi and having a -10 dB bandwidth greater than 300 MHz was employed to transmit and receive the interrogating and back-scattered signals, respectively. The generation of bits, employing On-Off Keying (OOK) modulation technique was successfully demonstrated. The tag, fabricated with the triangular antenna is found to perform the best

Resolution enhancement in mask aligner photolithography

Photolithographie ist eine unentbehrliche Technologie in der heutigen Mikrofabrikation integrierter elektronischer Schaltungen und optischer Komponenten auf verschiedenen Größenskalen. Die zugrundeliegende Aufgabe ist die Replikation der gewünschten Struktur, die kodiert ist in einer Photomaske, auf einem photolackbedeckten Wafer. In vergangenen Jahrzehnten gab es eine beeindruckende Weiterentwicklung photolithographischer Anlagen, was Auflösungen weit unterhalb eines Mikrometers ermöglicht. Das einfachste photolithographische Instrument ist der Maskenjustierbelichter, bei dem die Photomaske und der Wafer entweder in Kontakt oder in unmittelbare Nähe gebracht werden (Proximity-Modus), ohne zusätzliche optische Komponenten dazwischen. Vor über 50~Jahren eingeführt bleibt der Maskenjustierbelichter aufgrund seines wirtschaftlichen Betriebs das Instrument der Wahl für die Herstellung unkritischer Schichten, mit einer Auflösung von einigen Mikrometern im bevorzugten Proximity-Modus. Maskenjustierbelichter werden beispielsweise für die Herstellung von Mikrolinsen, lichtemittierende Dioden und mikromechanischen Systemen verwendet. Die erreichbare laterale räumliche Auflösung ist letztlich begrenzt durch die Beugung des Lichts an den Strukturen der Photomaske, was zu Verfälschungen der Abbildung auf dem Photolack führt. In dieser Arbeit entwickeln, präsentieren und diskutieren wir mehrere Technologien zur Auflösungsverbesserung für Maskenjustierbelichter im Proximity-Modus. Dies umfasst Photolithographie mit einer neuartigen Lichtquelle, die im tiefen Ultraviolett-Bereich emittiert, eine rigoros optimierte Phasenschiebermaske für periodische Strukturen, optische Proximity-Korrektur (Nahbereichskorrektur) angewandt auf nichtorthogonale Geometrien, und die Anwendung optischer Metaoberflächen als Photomasken. Eine Reduzierung der Wellenlänge verringert die Auswirkungen der Lichtbrechung und verbessert daher direkt die Auflösung, benötigt aber auch die Entwicklung geeigneter Konzepte für die Strahlformung und Homogenisierung der Beleuchtung. Wir diskutieren die Integration einer neuartigen Lichtquelle, ein frequenzvervierfachter Dauerstrichlaser mit einer Emissionswellenlänge von 193$\,$nm, in einem Maskenjustierbelichter. Damit zeigen wir erfolgreiche Prints von Teststrukturen mit einer Auflösung von bis zu 1,75$\,$µm bei einem Proximity-Abstand von 20$\,$µm. Bei Verwendung des selbstabbildenden Talboteffekts wird sogar eine Auflösung weit unterhalb eines Mikrometers für periodische Strukturen erzielt. Außerdem diskutieren wir die rigorose Simulation und Optimierung der Lichtausbreitung in und hinter Phasenschiebermasken, die unter schrägem Einfall belichtet werden. Mit einem optimierten Photomaskendesign kann dabei die Periode bei Belichtung unter drei diskreten Winkeln verkleinert abgebildet werden. Dies erlaubt es, Strukturen deutlich kleiner als ein Mikrometer abzubilden, wobei die Strukturen auf der Photomaske deutlich größer und damit einfacher herzustellen sind. Zudem betrachten wir eine Simulations- und Optimierungsmethode für die optische Proximity-Korrektur nicht-orthogonaler Strukturen, was deren Formtreue verbessert. die Wirksamkeit beider Konzepte bestätigen wir erfolgreich in experimentellen Prints. Die Verwendung optischer Metaoberflächen erweitert die Fähigkeiten zur Wellenfrontformung von Photomasken gegenüber etablierten Intensitäts- oder Phasenschiebermasken. Wir diskutieren zwei Designs für optische Metaoberflächen, die beide den vollen $2\,\pi$-Phasenbereich abdecken. Ein Design beinhaltet dabei noch einen plasmonischen Absorber, was zusätzliche Möglichkeiten bietet, den Transmissionskoeffizient anzupassen. Desweiteren beschreiben wir einen Algorithmus zur Berechnung des Maskenlayouts für beliebige Strukturen. Eine kontinuierliche Weiterentwicklung von Maskenjustierbelichtern ist unerlässlich, um Schritt zu halten mit der fortschreitenden Miniaturisierung in allen Bereich der Optik, der Mechanik und der Elektronik. Unsere Forschungsergebnisse ermöglichen es, die Auflösung der optischen Lithographie im Proximity-Modus zu verbessern und sich damit den zukünftigen Herausforderungen der optischen Industrie stellen zu können