3,173 research outputs found

    Developing A Road Freight Transport Performance Measurement System To Drive Sustainability:An Empirical Study Of Egyptian Road Freight Transport Companies

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    While several road freight performance measurement systems have been developed, only a limited number of quantified performance measurement frameworks encompassing diverse sets of performance metrics from multiple sustainable perspectives are available on a technological platform. These sets of metrics could be integrated as crucial performance indicators for assessing the operational performance of various road freight transport companies. These indicators include fuel efficiency, trip duration, vehicle loading, and cargo capacity. The objective of this research is to construct a conceptual road freight performance measurement framework that comprehensively incorporates performance elements from sustainable viewpoints (economic, environmental, and social), leveraging technology to measure the performance of road freight transport companies. This proposed framework aims to aid these companies in gauging their performance using technology, thus enhancing their operations towards sustainability.Within the road freight transport sector, several challenges exist, with congestion, road infrastructure maintenance, and driver training and qualifications being particularly pressing issues. The developed performance measurement framework offers the means for companies to evaluate the effects of technology integration on vehicles and overall performance. This allows companies to measure their performance from an operational standpoint rather than solely a strategic one, thereby identifying areas requiring improvement. Egypt was chosen as the empirical study location due to its relatively low level of technological integration within its road freight sector.This thesis employs an explanatory mixed methods approach, encompassing four distinct phases. The first phase entails a review to formulate the proposed theoretical performance measurement framework. Subsequently, the second phase involves conducting semi-structured interviews using a Delphi method to both develop a conceptual performance measurement framework and explore the present state of Egypt's road freight transport sector. Following this, the third phase encompasses surveys based on the results derived from Delphi analysis, involving diverse participants from the road freight transport industry. The aim is to validate the developed performance measurement framework through an empirical study conducted in Egypt. Lastly, the fourth phase centres around organizing focus groups involving stakeholders within road freight transport companies. The goal here is to propose a roadmap for implementing the developed road freight transport performance measurement framework within the Egyptian context.The primary theoretical contribution of this research is the development of a road freight transport performance measurement framework that integrates the three sustainability dimensions with technology. Additionally, this study offers practical guidance for the application of the developed framework in various countries and contexts. From a practical standpoint, this research aids road freight transport managers in evaluating their operational performance, thereby identifying challenges, devising action plans, and making informed decisions to mitigate these issues and enhance sustainability-oriented performance. Ultimately, the developed road freight transport performance measurement framework is poised to promote performance measurement aligned with technology, fostering progress towards achieving the sustainable development goals by 2030

    Electrified heat and transport : energy demand futures, their impacts on power networks and what it means for system flexibility

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    Demand electrification, system flexibility and energy demand reduction (EDR) are three central tenets of most energy system decarbonisation pathways in the UK and other high-income countries. However, their combined impacts on local energy systems remain understudied. Here, we investigate the impact of different UK energy demand future scenarios on the loading of local electricity networks, and the ability of electrified demand to act flexibly in (i) mitigating the need for network reinforcement and (ii) shifting demand around according to variable tariffs reflecting wider system needs. These scenarios are used to drive spatially- and temporally-explicit technology uptake and energy demand modelling for heating and transport in a localised context, for application to a local electricity network. A particular case study energy network in Scotland, representative of many networks in the UK and Northern Europe, is selected to demonstrate the method. On the basis of the presented case study, which considered a typical winter demand day, energy futures based on EDR policies were found on average to reduce evening transformer loading by up to 16%. Further reductions of up to 43% were achieved with flexible smart charging and up to 69% with the use of vehicle-to-grid. Therefore, we find that policies focused on EDR can mitigate the need for reinforcement of electricity networks against the backdrop of demand electrification. However, flexibility in electricity demand contributes a larger difference to a network’s ability to host electrified heat and transport than relying solely on EDR. When used in tandem, policies that simultaneously pursue EDR and electricity system flexibility are shown to have the greatest benefits. Despite these benefits, peak electricity demand is very likely to increase significantly relative to the current baseline. Therefore, widespread reinforcement is required to local electricity networks in the net-zero transition and, accordingly, urgent investment is required to support the realisation of the UK’s legally-binding climate goals

    Pristup specifikaciji i generisanju proizvodnih procesa zasnovan na inženjerstvu vođenom modelima

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    In this thesis, we present an approach to the production process specification and generation based on the model-driven paradigm, with the goal to increase the flexibility of factories and respond to the challenges that emerged in the era of Industry 4.0 more efficiently. To formally specify production processes and their variations in the Industry 4.0 environment, we created a novel domain-specific modeling language, whose models are machine-readable. The created language can be used to model production processes that can be independent of any production system, enabling process models to be used in different production systems, and process models used for the specific production system. To automatically transform production process models dependent on the specific production system into instructions that are to be executed by production system resources, we created an instruction generator. Also, we created generators for different manufacturing documentation, which automatically transform production process models into manufacturing documents of different types. The proposed approach, domain-specific modeling language, and software solution contribute to introducing factories into the digital transformation process. As factories must rapidly adapt to new products and their variations in the era of Industry 4.0, production must be dynamically led and instructions must be automatically sent to factory resources, depending on products that are to be created on the shop floor. The proposed approach contributes to the creation of such a dynamic environment in contemporary factories, as it allows to automatically generate instructions from process models and send them to resources for execution. Additionally, as there are numerous different products and their variations, keeping the required manufacturing documentation up to date becomes challenging, which can be done automatically by using the proposed approach and thus significantly lower process designers' time.У овој дисертацији представљен је приступ спецификацији и генерисању производних процеса заснован на инжењерству вођеном моделима, у циљу повећања флексибилности постројења у фабрикама и ефикаснијег разрешавања изазова који се појављују у ери Индустрије 4.0. За потребе формалне спецификације производних процеса и њихових варијација у амбијенту Индустрије 4.0, креиран је нови наменски језик, чије моделе рачунар може да обради на аутоматизован начин. Креирани језик има могућност моделовања производних процеса који могу бити независни од производних система и тиме употребљени у различитим постројењима или фабрикама, али и производних процеса који су специфични за одређени систем. Како би моделе производних процеса зависних од конкретног производног система било могуће на аутоматизован начин трансформисати у инструкције које ресурси производног система извршавају, креиран је генератор инструкција. Такође су креирани и генератори техничке документације, који на аутоматизован начин трансформишу моделе производних процеса у документе различитих типова. Употребом предложеног приступа, наменског језика и софтверског решења доприноси се увођењу фабрика у процес дигиталне трансформације. Како фабрике у ери Индустрије 4.0 морају брзо да се прилагоде новим производима и њиховим варијацијама, неопходно је динамички водити производњу и на аутоматизован начин слати инструкције ресурсима у фабрици, у зависности од производа који се креирају у конкретном постројењу. Тиме што је у предложеном приступу могуће из модела процеса аутоматизовано генерисати инструкције и послати их ресурсима, доприноси се креирању једног динамичког окружења у савременим фабрикама. Додатно, услед великог броја различитих производа и њихових варијација, постаје изазовно одржавати неопходну техничку документацију, што је у предложеном приступу могуће урадити на аутоматизован начин и тиме значајно уштедети време пројектаната процеса.U ovoj disertaciji predstavljen je pristup specifikaciji i generisanju proizvodnih procesa zasnovan na inženjerstvu vođenom modelima, u cilju povećanja fleksibilnosti postrojenja u fabrikama i efikasnijeg razrešavanja izazova koji se pojavljuju u eri Industrije 4.0. Za potrebe formalne specifikacije proizvodnih procesa i njihovih varijacija u ambijentu Industrije 4.0, kreiran je novi namenski jezik, čije modele računar može da obradi na automatizovan način. Kreirani jezik ima mogućnost modelovanja proizvodnih procesa koji mogu biti nezavisni od proizvodnih sistema i time upotrebljeni u različitim postrojenjima ili fabrikama, ali i proizvodnih procesa koji su specifični za određeni sistem. Kako bi modele proizvodnih procesa zavisnih od konkretnog proizvodnog sistema bilo moguće na automatizovan način transformisati u instrukcije koje resursi proizvodnog sistema izvršavaju, kreiran je generator instrukcija. Takođe su kreirani i generatori tehničke dokumentacije, koji na automatizovan način transformišu modele proizvodnih procesa u dokumente različitih tipova. Upotrebom predloženog pristupa, namenskog jezika i softverskog rešenja doprinosi se uvođenju fabrika u proces digitalne transformacije. Kako fabrike u eri Industrije 4.0 moraju brzo da se prilagode novim proizvodima i njihovim varijacijama, neophodno je dinamički voditi proizvodnju i na automatizovan način slati instrukcije resursima u fabrici, u zavisnosti od proizvoda koji se kreiraju u konkretnom postrojenju. Time što je u predloženom pristupu moguće iz modela procesa automatizovano generisati instrukcije i poslati ih resursima, doprinosi se kreiranju jednog dinamičkog okruženja u savremenim fabrikama. Dodatno, usled velikog broja različitih proizvoda i njihovih varijacija, postaje izazovno održavati neophodnu tehničku dokumentaciju, što je u predloženom pristupu moguće uraditi na automatizovan način i time značajno uštedeti vreme projektanata procesa

    Effective player guidance in logic puzzles

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    Pen & paper puzzle games are an extremely popular pastime, often enjoyed by demographics normally not considered to be ‘gamers’. They are increasingly used as ‘serious games’ and there has been extensive research into computationally generating and efficiently solving them. However, there have been few academic studies that have focused on the players themselves. Presenting an appropriate level of challenge to a player is essential for both player enjoyment and engagement. Providing appropriate assistance is an essential mechanic for making a game accessible to a variety of players. In this thesis, we investigate how players solve Progressive Pen & Paper Puzzle Games (PPPPs) and how to provide meaningful assistance that allows players to recover from being stuck, while not reducing the challenge to trivial levels. This thesis begins with a qualitative in-person study of Sudoku solving. This study demonstrates that, in contrast to all existing assumptions used to model players, players were unsystematic, idiosyncratic and error-prone. We then designed an entirely new approach to providing assistance in PPPPs, which guides players towards easier deductions rather than, as current systems do, completing the next cell for them. We implemented a novel hint system using our design, with the assessment of the challenge being done using Minimal Unsatisfiable Sets (MUSs). We conducted four studies, using two different PPPPs, that evaluated the efficacy of the novel hint system compared to the current hint approach. The studies demonstrated that our novel hint system was as helpful as the existing system while also improving the player experience and feeling less like cheating. Players also chose to use our novel hint system significantly more often. We have provided a new approach to providing assistance to PPPP players and demonstrated that players prefer it over existing approaches

    Capacity Planning with Uncertainty on Contract Fulfillment

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    This paper focuses on the tactical planning problem faced by a shipper which seeks to secure transportation and warehousing capacity, such as containers, vehicles or space in a warehouse, of different sizes, costs, and characteristics, from a carrier or logistics provider, while facing different sources of uncertainty. The uncertainty can be related to the loads to be transported or stored, the cost and availability of ad-hoc capacity on the spot market in the future, and the availability of the contracted capacity in the future when the shipper needs it. This last source of uncertainty on the capacity loss on the contracted capacity is particularly important in both long-haul transportation and urban distribution applications, but no optimization methodology has been proposed so far. We introduce the Stochastic Variable Cost and Size Bin Packing with Capacity Loss problem and model that directly address this issue, together with a metaheuristic to efficiently address it. We perform a set of extensive numerical experiments on instances related to long-haul transportation and urban distribution contexts and derive managerial insights on how such capacity planning should be performed

    On the Control of Microgrids Against Cyber-Attacks: A Review of Methods and Applications

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    Nowadays, the use of renewable generations, energy storage systems (ESSs) and microgrids (MGs) has been developed due to better controllability of distributed energy resources (DERs) as well as their cost-effective and emission-aware operation. The development of MGs as well as the use of hierarchical control has led to data transmission in the communication platform. As a result, the expansion of communication infrastructure has made MGs as cyber-physical systems (CPSs) vulnerable to cyber-attacks (CAs). Accordingly, prevention, detection and isolation of CAs during proper control of MGs is essential. In this paper, a comprehensive review on the control strategies of microgrids against CAs and its defense mechanisms has been done. The general structure of the paper is as follows: firstly, MGs operational conditions, i.e., the secure or insecure mode of the physical and cyber layers are investigated and the appropriate control to return to a safer mode are presented. Then, the common MGs communication system is described which is generally used for multi-agent systems (MASs). Also, classification of CAs in MGs has been reviewed. Afterwards, a comprehensive survey of available researches in the field of prevention, detection and isolation of CA and MG control against CA are summarized. Finally, future trends in this context are clarified

    LIPIcs, Volume 251, ITCS 2023, Complete Volume

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    LIPIcs, Volume 251, ITCS 2023, Complete Volum

    Rethink Digital Health Innovation: Understanding Socio-Technical Interoperability as Guiding Concept

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    Diese Dissertation sucht nach einem theoretischem Grundgerüst, um komplexe, digitale Gesundheitsinnovationen so zu entwickeln, dass sie bessere Erfolgsaussichten haben, auch in der alltäglichen Versorgungspraxis anzukommen. Denn obwohl es weder am Bedarf von noch an Ideen für digitale Gesundheitsinnovationen mangelt, bleibt die Flut an erfolgreich in der Praxis etablierten Lösungen leider aus. Dieser unzureichende Diffusionserfolg einer entwickelten Lösung - gern auch als Pilotitis pathologisiert - offenbart sich insbesondere dann, wenn die geplante Innovation mit größeren Ambitionen und Komplexität verbunden ist. Dem geübten Kritiker werden sofort ketzerische Gegenfragen in den Sinn kommen. Beispielsweise was denn unter komplexen, digitalen Gesundheitsinnovationen verstanden werden soll und ob es überhaupt möglich ist, eine universale Lösungsformel zu finden, die eine erfolgreiche Diffusion digitaler Gesundheitsinnovationen garantieren kann. Beide Fragen sind nicht nur berechtigt, sondern münden letztlich auch in zwei Forschungsstränge, welchen ich mich in dieser Dissertation explizit widme. In einem ersten Block erarbeite ich eine Abgrenzung jener digitalen Gesundheitsinnovationen, welche derzeit in Literatur und Praxis besondere Aufmerksamkeit aufgrund ihres hohen Potentials zur Versorgungsverbesserung und ihrer resultierenden Komplexität gewidmet ist. Genauer gesagt untersuche ich dominante Zielstellungen und welche Herausforderung mit ihnen einhergehen. Innerhalb der Arbeiten in diesem Forschungsstrang kristallisieren sich vier Zielstellungen heraus: 1. die Unterstützung kontinuierlicher, gemeinschaftlicher Versorgungsprozesse über diverse Leistungserbringer (auch als inter-organisationale Versorgungspfade bekannt); 2. die aktive Einbeziehung der Patient:innen in ihre Versorgungsprozesse (auch als Patient Empowerment oder Patient Engagement bekannt); 3. die Stärkung der sektoren-übergreifenden Zusammenarbeit zwischen Wissenschaft und Versorgungpraxis bis hin zu lernenden Gesundheitssystemen und 4. die Etablierung daten-zentrierter Wertschöpfung für das Gesundheitswesen aufgrund steigender bzgl. Verfügbarkeit valider Daten, neuen Verarbeitungsmethoden (Stichwort Künstliche Intelligenz) sowie den zahlreichen Nutzungsmöglichkeiten. Im Fokus dieser Dissertation stehen daher weniger die autarken, klar abgrenzbaren Innovationen (bspw. eine Symptomtagebuch-App zur Beschwerdedokumentation). Vielmehr adressiert diese Doktorarbeit jene Innovationsvorhaben, welche eine oder mehrere der o.g. Zielstellung verfolgen, ein weiteres technologisches Puzzleteil in komplexe Informationssystemlandschaften hinzufügen und somit im Zusammenspiel mit diversen weiteren IT-Systemen zur Verbesserung der Gesundheitsversorgung und/ oder ihrer Organisation beitragen. In der Auseinandersetzung mit diesen Zielstellungen und verbundenen Herausforderungen der Systementwicklung rückte das Problem fragmentierter IT-Systemlandschaften des Gesundheitswesens in den Mittelpunkt. Darunter wird der unerfreuliche Zustand verstanden, dass unterschiedliche Informations- und Anwendungssysteme nicht wie gewünscht miteinander interagieren können. So kommt es zu Unterbrechungen von Informationsflüssen und Versorgungsprozessen, welche anderweitig durch fehleranfällige Zusatzaufwände (bspw. Doppeldokumentation) aufgefangen werden müssen. Um diesen Einschränkungen der Effektivität und Effizienz zu begegnen, müssen eben jene IT-System-Silos abgebaut werden. Alle o.g. Zielstellungen ordnen sich dieser defragmentierenden Wirkung unter, in dem sie 1. verschiedene Leistungserbringer, 2. Versorgungsteams und Patient:innen, 3. Wissenschaft und Versorgung oder 4. diverse Datenquellen und moderne Auswertungstechnologien zusammenführen wollen. Doch nun kommt es zu einem komplexen Ringschluss. Einerseits suchen die in dieser Arbeit thematisierten digitalen Gesundheitsinnovationen Wege zur Defragmentierung der Informationssystemlandschaften. Andererseits ist ihre eingeschränkte Erfolgsquote u.a. in eben jener bestehenden Fragmentierung begründet, die sie aufzulösen suchen. Mit diesem Erkenntnisgewinn eröffnet sich der zweite Forschungsstrang dieser Arbeit, der sich mit der Eigenschaft der 'Interoperabilität' intensiv auseinandersetzt. Er untersucht, wie diese Eigenschaft eine zentrale Rolle für Innovationsvorhaben in der Digital Health Domäne einnehmen soll. Denn Interoperabilität beschreibt, vereinfacht ausgedrückt, die Fähigkeit von zwei oder mehreren Systemen miteinander gemeinsame Aufgaben zu erfüllen. Sie repräsentiert somit das Kernanliegen der identifizierten Zielstellungen und ist Dreh- und Angelpunkt, wenn eine entwickelte Lösung in eine konkrete Zielumgebung integriert werden soll. Von einem technisch-dominierten Blickwinkel aus betrachtet, geht es hierbei um die Gewährleistung von validen, performanten und sicheren Kommunikationsszenarien, sodass die o.g. Informationsflussbrüche zwischen technischen Teilsystemen abgebaut werden. Ein rein technisches Interoperabilitätsverständnis genügt jedoch nicht, um die Vielfalt an Diffusionsbarrieren von digitalen Gesundheitsinnovationen zu umfassen. Denn beispielsweise das Fehlen adäquater Vergütungsoptionen innerhalb der gesetzlichen Rahmenbedingungen oder eine mangelhafte Passfähigkeit für den bestimmten Versorgungsprozess sind keine rein technischen Probleme. Vielmehr kommt hier eine Grundhaltung der Wirtschaftsinformatik zum Tragen, die Informationssysteme - auch die des Gesundheitswesens - als sozio-technische Systeme begreift und dabei Technologie stets im Zusammenhang mit Menschen, die sie nutzen, von ihr beeinflusst werden oder sie organisieren, betrachtet. Soll eine digitale Gesundheitsinnovation, die einen Mehrwert gemäß der o.g. Zielstellungen verspricht, in eine existierende Informationssystemlandschaft der Gesundheitsversorgung integriert werden, so muss sie aus technischen sowie nicht-technischen Gesichtspunkten 'interoperabel' sein. Zwar ist die Notwendigkeit von Interoperabilität in der Wissenschaft, Politik und Praxis bekannt und auch positive Bewegungen der Domäne hin zu mehr Interoperabilität sind zu verspüren. Jedoch dominiert dabei einerseits ein technisches Verständnis und andererseits bleibt das Potential dieser Eigenschaft als Leitmotiv für das Innovationsmanagement bislang weitestgehend ungenutzt. An genau dieser Stelle knüpft nun der Hauptbeitrag dieser Doktorarbeit an, in dem sie eine sozio-technische Konzeptualisierung und Kontextualisierung von Interoperabilität für künftige digitale Gesundheitsinnovationen vorschlägt. Literatur- und expertenbasiert wird ein Rahmenwerk erarbeitet - das Digital Health Innovation Interoperability Framework - das insbesondere Innovatoren und Innovationsfördernde dabei unterstützen soll, die Diffusionswahrscheinlichkeit in die Praxis zu erhöhen. Nun sind mit diesem Framework viele Erkenntnisse und Botschaften verbunden, die ich für diesen Prolog wie folgt zusammenfassen möchte: 1. Um die Entwicklung digitaler Gesundheitsinnovationen bestmöglich auf eine erfolgreiche Integration in eine bestimmte Zielumgebung auszurichten, sind die Realisierung eines neuartigen Wertversprechens sowie die Gewährleistung sozio-technischer Interoperabilität die zwei zusammenhängenden Hauptaufgaben eines Innovationsprozesses. 2. Die Gewährleistung von Interoperabilität ist eine aktiv zu verantwortende Managementaufgabe und wird durch projektspezifische Bedingungen sowie von externen und internen Dynamiken beeinflusst. 3. Sozio-technische Interoperabilität im Kontext digitaler Gesundheitsinnovationen kann über sieben, interdependente Ebenen definiert werden: Politische und regulatorische Bedingungen; Vertragsbedingungen; Versorgungs- und Geschäftsprozesse; Nutzung; Information; Anwendungen; IT-Infrastruktur. 4. Um Interoperabilität auf jeder dieser Ebenen zu gewährleisten, sind Strategien differenziert zu definieren, welche auf einem Kontinuum zwischen Kompatibilitätsanforderungen aufseiten der Innovation und der Motivation von Anpassungen aufseiten der Zielumgebung verortet werden können. 5. Das Streben nach mehr Interoperabilität fördert sowohl den nachhaltigen Erfolg der einzelnen digitalen Gesundheitsinnovation als auch die Defragmentierung existierender Informationssystemlandschaften und trägt somit zur Verbesserung des Gesundheitswesens bei. Zugegeben: die letzte dieser fünf Botschaften trägt eher die Färbung einer Überzeugung, als dass sie ein Ergebnis wissenschaftlicher Beweisführung ist. Dennoch empfinde ich diese, wenn auch persönliche Erkenntnis als Maxim der Domäne, der ich mich zugehörig fühle - der IT-Systementwicklung des Gesundheitswesens

    Saturn: An Optimized Data System for Large Model Deep Learning Workloads

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    Large language models such as GPT-3 & ChatGPT have transformed deep learning (DL), powering applications that have captured the public's imagination. These models are rapidly being adopted across domains for analytics on various modalities, often by finetuning pre-trained base models. Such models need multiple GPUs due to both their size and computational load, driving the development of a bevy of "model parallelism" techniques & tools. Navigating such parallelism choices, however, is a new burden for end users of DL such as data scientists, domain scientists, etc. who may lack the necessary systems knowhow. The need for model selection, which leads to many models to train due to hyper-parameter tuning or layer-wise finetuning, compounds the situation with two more burdens: resource apportioning and scheduling. In this work, we tackle these three burdens for DL users in a unified manner by formalizing them as a joint problem that we call SPASE: Select a Parallelism, Allocate resources, and SchedulE. We propose a new information system architecture to tackle the SPASE problem holistically, representing a key step toward enabling wider adoption of large DL models. We devise an extensible template for existing parallelism schemes and combine it with an automated empirical profiler for runtime estimation. We then formulate SPASE as an MILP. We find that direct use of an MILP-solver is significantly more effective than several baseline heuristics. We optimize the system runtime further with an introspective scheduling approach. We implement all these techniques into a new data system we call Saturn. Experiments with benchmark DL workloads show that Saturn achieves 39-49% lower model selection runtimes than typical current DL practice.Comment: Under submission at VLDB. Code available: https://github.com/knagrecha/saturn. 12 pages + 3 pages references + 2 pages appendi

    A latent-based segmentation framework for the investigation of charging behaviour of electric vehicle users

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    Electrification of transport is deemed by many countries worldwide as one of the key strategies to mitigate C02 emissions, yet the availability of reliable public charging infrastructure systems represents a potential serious bottleneck to such endeavours. Existing studies exploring battery electric vehicle (BEV) charging behaviour are typically based on either non-representative samples or stated choices experiments. This paper analyses observational data from a representative sample of German BEV owners who provided information on mileage and charging activities over a timeframe of eight weeks. BEV charging patterns, related vehicles kilometres travelled (VKT) and battery charging behaviour are assessed via a multifaceted empirical framework that pairs a hazard survival-based model with a log linear regression approach. A latent class method is also employed to segment BEV owners into different charging segments. The model suggests two types of charging behaviour exist, consisting of regular and irregular chargers. Charging frequencies and patterns are found to be radically different between the two groups under study, with regular chargers estimated to charge their vehicles 1.5 times more than irregular chargers. Lastly, the framework proposed is used to explore how charging behaviour will mutate due to both technology advancements (BEV driving range improvements) and user-centric factors (VKT variations). Neither technological or user factors are predicted to substantially affect the inter-charging duration of irregular chargers, whereas both increasing BEV driving ranges and reducing VKT results in a longer elapsed time between two consecutive charges for regular users
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