Traffic Congestion Pricing: Methodologies and Equity Implications

Road traffic congestion is recognized as a growing and important urban ill. It occurs in different contexts, takes on many faces and is caused by a variety of processes. It affects both work trips and non-work trips, both passengers and goods flow. It affects the quality of life and the competitiveness of a region. It is an additional cost that arises in the forms of delay, environmental degradation, diminished productivity, standard of living and wasted energy. Congestion pricing can result in winners and losers among different socio-economic groups. However, different studies differ in their conclusions about who wins and who loses because of different assumptions made. This paper reviews the concepts of congestion pricing as a mitigation policy to reduce road congestion and reviews the concept of equity. This paper aims to provide theoretical research that enhances our understanding of congestion pricing policy and the equity implications of this policy

Policy Issues in Implementing Smart Cards in Urban Public Transit Systems

Many public transportation institutions have been discarding their magnetic strip payment cards or traditional cash-based fee collection systems in favor of automated fare collection systems with smart card technology. Smart cards look like traditional credit cards or ID cards; however, using RFID technology, they allow for contactless payment and identification. Smart cards are becoming increasingly popular among transit agencies primarily because they are convenient for customers, reduce administrative costs for transit agencies, and have the potential of improving the performance of complex transit systems overall. The increased availability and affordability of contactless cards has also contributed to this trend in adoption

Surveillance and the city: patronage, power-sharing and the politics of urban control in Zimbabwe

From 2000, ZANU(PF) suffered repeated electoral defeat in the cities and lost control of municipalities to the opposition Movement for Democratic Change (MDC). This turned urban governance into a battlefield, as ZANU(PF) dramatically recentralised powers over local authorities, developed ‘parallel’ party structures and used militia to control central markets and peri-urban land. Taking the case of Harare and environs during the period of Zimbabwe's Inclusive Government (IG), this article explores contestations over urban authority, focusing on the office of councillor and urban spaces dominated by ZANU(PF)-aligned militia. I argue that surveillance was central to ZANU(PF)'s strategy for urban control and to the politics of patronage. Inconvenient councillors were disciplined by threats and enticements from the feared Central Intelligence Organisation (CIO) and were also vulnerable to suspension, while ZANU(PF) militia made political loyalty a condition of access to market stalls, land and housing cooperatives. Dominant political science characterisations of the African postcolonial state and ethnographic accounts of precarity and vigilance mislead in this context if they fail to capture the disciplining roles and social reach of a centralised partisan state security agency and militarised party structures that suffuse work and social life within local government institutions and contested city spaces. Analyses of power-sharing need to reach beyond the national stage not only because conflict over local authorities can undermine transitional political processes but also for the light they can shed on the changing character of the state and its relationship to reconstituted ZANU(PF) powers

Educational Resources and Impediments in Rural Gansu, China

This report seeks to provide a portrait of schools serving rural communities in northwest China, and to shed light on factors that encourage and discourage school persistence among children in this region. To achieve these goals, we analyze a survey of rural children and their families, schools, and teachers in Gansu province. The project interviewed children in the year 2000, when children were 9 to 12 years old, and again four years later. In part one of the paper, we provide a descriptive overview of the material, human, and cultural resources available in sampled primary and middle schools. Where possible, we note changes between 2000 and 2004. We describe the following types of resources: (1) basic facilities; (2) financial arrangements; (3) teachers, including their background, qualifications, working lives, professional development activities, satisfaction with work, and attitudes about school management and culture; and (4) classroom environments, as reported by teachers and by students. In this descriptive section of the paper, we highlight basic infrastructure issues, the complexity of financial arrangements at the time of the surveys, problems of teacher wage arrears and teacher morale, and the pedagogies and learning environments in classrooms, as reported by teachers and students. In part two of the paper, we investigate reasons for school leaving reported by village leaders, families, and children themselves, and analyze contributors to subsequent enrollment, change in attainment, and attainment of nine years of compulsory education. Our models of family, teacher, and school effects on outcomes show that higher socio-economic status children are more likely to show grade attainment, continued enrollment, and attainment of nine years of basic education. In contrast, the gender story is mixed: girls are less likely to be enrolled, but have not gained less grades, nor are they less likely to achieve nine years of education. This finding suggests that boys may start later or repeat more. It is possible that boys are more likely to be encouraged to repeat a grade to complete it successfully or to increase high school exam scores. One significant finding is that the introduction of school and teacher effects, by and large, does not explain away the advantages of children in better off families. School and teacher effects do not consistently matter across the three outcomes. Some interesting findings include that teacher absenteeism in 2000 is associated with less attainment between 2000 and 2004; children with better-paid home room teachers are more likely to attain nine years of school; and children in schools with minban teachers are less likely to attain nine years. However, there is not a consistent story of school characteristics that help or hinder childrenʹs persistence. Reports by village-leaders, fathers, mothers, and children themselves indicate that, along with socioeconomic status, children\u27s performance and engagement are significant factors in school continuation decisions in Gansu\u27s rural villages. Multivariate analyses indicate that childrenʹs early aspirations and performance matter for later outcomes. We close by discussing the most significant strengths and weaknesses identified among the school resources discussed in part one, and the most significant supports and hindrances to favorable educational outcomes considered in part two

Sustainability and Perceptions of Fair Water Resources Management: a case study of the Lark Valley, Suffolk

As socially and naturally imposed limits place water resources under greater pressure, the frequency of resource disputes will intensify. The emerging regulatory challenge is to mediate competing claims to water while taking account of conflicting decision criteria within the sustainability discourse. This thesis set out to explore the extent to which the objectives of sustainable and just water resource management strategies can be informed by an understanding of different perceptions of fairness among water abstractors, other interests groups and the environmental regulator. The normative dimensions of resource problems and solutions are underrepresented in the literature on water resources management and most work on equity and water operates with a predetermined position regarding the meaning of equitable allocation and management. There exists, therefore, a need for an understanding of local fairness norms for water, and fairness judgements held by stakeholders themselves. The main objective of the research was thus to determine what is fair water resources management, and to what extent are perceptions of fairness important in advancing sustainable water resources management? A qualitative and quantitative stakeholder analysis and catchment case study were employed to map competing claims on water in a small, rural water stressed catchment in East Anglia. The empirical study is contextualised in the drought events, regulatory change and new discourses influencing water management of 1989-1995. Analysis of attitudes to the regulator and to management strategies and support for different principles of water justice reveals the differing views of fair water management and expectations for water regulation which frame conflict and cooperation in the catchment. The thesis shows that as the environment has become a major player in water resource management: the notion of fairness as 'balance' (implicit in the regulation of water abstraction) has become contested, and the expectations for regulation more diverse

Reinterpret 4As framework of energy security from the perspective of human security – an analysis of China’s electric vehicle (EV) development

This research addresses two issues: expanding the understanding of human security with the case of China’s electric vehicle (EV) development and examining the human security implications of China’s EV development. This research adopts an online ethnographic method to record very personal driving forces and barriers to China’s EV uptake through the experiences shared by ordinary Chinese people. From a theoretical perspective, this research provides more evidence for the applicability of the broad human security approach in energy security analysis through the case of China’s EV development. By reinterpreting the 4As framework (availability, affordability, accessibility, and acceptability), which is one of the most frequently adopted frameworks in the analysis of energy security on the state level, (Cherp & Jewell, 2014, p. 416), this research challenges the current understanding of human security by demonstrating that threats to human security exist at all levels of development and touch not only the most vulnerable but also people living in well-developed regions in the face of the lasted technological transformation. The analysis of China’s EV development as a strategic energy security consideration sheds some light on the complicated relationship between state and individual security within China’s security discussion. It enriches the understanding of human security by exploring how it has been adapted to the Chinese social and political context. Meanwhile, drawing on the insights from ontological security through the lens of some key indicators (protection, autonomy, and social acceptance), this research emphasises the necessity of incorporating the subjective dimension in human security analysis to capture subjective feelings and psychological factors in everyday security. This research contributes empirically to identifying human security implications of EV development based on the real-life experiences shared by the Chinese people, which may constitute barriers to China’s EV uptake. Informed by the flexible interpretation of security agency offered by the broad human security approach, this research demonstrates that apart from the state’s dominant position as the main security provider, other players, such as carmakers, also play an important role in shaping people’s perceptions of how secure EVs are. Recognising that the misoperation of an automobile can cause serious physical harm to both those on board and other road users, this research argues that ordinary people should not be only considered as the object of protection but also as the agent with the power to exert influence on the security implications of the new technology

Carbon lock-out: Advancing renewable energy policy in Europe

As part of its climate strategy, the EU aims at increasing the share of electricity from renewable energy sources (RES-E) in overall electricity generation. Attaining this target poses a considerable challenge as the electricity sector is “locked” into a carbon-intensive system, which hampers the adoption of RES-E technologies. Electricity generation, transmission and distribution grids as well as storage and demand response are subject to important path dependences, which put existing, non-renewable energy sources at an advantage. This paper examines how an EU framework for RES-E support policies should be designed to facilitate a carbon lock-out. For this purpose, we specify the major technological, economic and institutional barriers to RES-E. For each of the barriers, a policy review is carried out which assesses the performance of existing policy instruments and identifies needs for reform. The review reveals several shortcomings: while policies targeting generation are widely in place, measures to address barriers associated with electricity grids, storage and demand are still in their infancy and have to be extended. Moreover, the implementation of policies has been fragmented across EU Member States. In this respect, national policies should be embedded into an integrated EU-wide planning of the RES-E system with overarching energy scenarios and partially harmonized policy rules

Village-level solar power in practice: Transfer of socio-technical innovations between India and Kenya

English Summary This dissertation monograph investigates village-level solar power supply, which is one of the potential solutions for providing access to basic electricity services for people who are not served by conventional electricity grids. The first research question is: How can village-level solar power supply systems be implemented in ways that make them well-functioning and viable in the long run, useful for the community members and widely implemented and used? The dissertation furthermore analyses transfer of social and technical innovations between different socio-cultural settings, including how a translation of innovations to different social contexts may take place, asking a second research question: How can social and technical innovations on local infrastructure systems be transferred between geographical contexts? The dissertation includes a case study on village-level solar power supply in India and explores how knowledge obtained in India is transferred to a new local and national context in Kenya. Solar power supply systems in Indian and Kenyan villages are analysed in terms of how they function in practice and why including how the local systems are influenced by national framework conditions. The process of transferring social and technical innovations between India and Kenya is analysed in terms of how the outcomes occurred, including how the social and technological innovations created in one socio-cultural setting were investigated and brought into a different local and national context with similar challenges in infrastructure provision. The dissertation analyses how a socio-technical systems perspective can be used to better understand the human and social aspects of implementation, sustenance and expansion of village-level power provision without losing sight of the technical and economic aspects. This perspective is combined with other approaches to social transformation, renewable energy systems, and technology transfer, and directs attention to people’s everyday challenges and practices at the local level. A framework of analysis for local case studies of socio-technical innovations is developed and applied. Moreover, the dissertation examines how a socio-technical systems perspective can be helpful also in studies of spatial transfer of innovations. The data material includes qualitative interviews, participant observation and project documentation, complemented with quantitative data and statistics. The study builds on trans-disciplinary research and action research; practical development of plans for a local electricity supply system in Kenya, as well as implementation, adjustment and improvements based on research results generated underway. The dissertation argues that research and practice on how to achieve electricity for all need to consider social and geographical contexts at different levels, and presents examples of how social contexts may influence the design and functioning of infrastructures. The dissertation shows that facilitating creative, inclusive and committed learning processes is important both for the development of better and more inclusive energy models, for attempts at up-scaling, and for spatial transfer of innovations. The analysis contributes to the knowledge on how socio-technical innovation with emphasis on equity and sustainability might be stimulated, despite barriers constituted by established energy regimes and other social structures

The student as customer: a study of the intensified marketisation of higher education in England.

The literature review revealed two opposing views of the ‘student as customer’; either it is considered to be a deliberate policy construct rooted in the marketisation of higher education, which encourages public universities to behave like private businesses. Or it is considered to be a natural extension of rising consumerism in society, rendering universities as ‘cathedrals of consumption’. Both perspectives recognise that there is an attempt at creating a market in English higher education. This study discusses a ‘paradigm shift’ signalling an intensification of marketisation that began in the early 1980s. The purpose is to identify how these policy changes are perceived, by interviewing a large sample of senior managers and policy analysts in English higher education. Four themes emerged from the interviews. First, universities were said to be becoming increasingly “business like” suggesting that senior managers of English universities were faced with an identity crisis in grappling with their purpose as businesses or educational institutions. Second, was the idea that they performed in a “market like” fashion, displaying an uncomfortable acceptance of the idea whilst being open to the discussion of a free market in the future. Third, was the characterisation of student relationships with the university as “customer like” revealing an uncertainty as to whether students are customers or not. Fourth, was “individualism” a concept accepting the fact that universities would have to see higher education as an individual investment by a student. The implication of these uncertain themes is that senior managers would need to get out of ‘debate mode’ to adopt a clear and radical stance instead of being locked in the indecisive “like” dilemmas. They must develop the ability to see through the ‘strategy illusion’ and either challenge or accept the policy-induced uncertainties of higher education in the 21st century.N/