It\u27s Not Child\u27s Play: A Regulatory Approach to Reforming American Youth Sports

Introduction The American youth sports industry has become an economic behemoth, totaling roughly $19 billion in annual revenue. This revenue outpaces National Football League (NFL) revenue by several billion dollars and is more than double the revenue earned by the National Basketball Association and the National Hockey League, combined. The Covid-19 pandemic limited sport on all levels in 2020 and, to a lesser extent, in 2021, and the economic effects thereof will certainly stretch forward into succeeding years. However, as the nation overcomes the virus and children return in full numbers to gyms, fields, tracks, and rinks, youth sports will charge on as big business. They will continue to be televised on national networks and streamed across countless media platforms, and will continue to provide a livelihood for scores of adults, the most enterprising among whom will continue to make fortunes through youth sports entrepreneurship. Towns that have based their entire economies around youth sports tourism will continue to thrive, and copycat towns will sprout up. In short, scores of adults will continue to benefit from the youth sports industry. There is, however, a related cost, and it is born principally by youth athletes. What was once a fun and recreational endeavor for children has grown into a cash cow, substantially intensifying the environment within which the children play. This often operates to the children\u27s physical, emotional and psychological detriment - driving some young athletes out of sport prematurely and damaging the experiences of those who remain involved. This article argues that reform is necessary. Currently, youth sports stakeholders - coaches, trainers, sports clubs, training facility operators, and others - are essentially unregulated. They are bound only by their own standards, which ensures uneven regulation across regions, states, localities, and clubs. To protect America\u27s children from mistreatment in an industry whose goal is ostensibly to ensure their well-being, uniform nationwide regulations are necessary. Part I of this article details the history of youth sports development in the United States as well as the travel sports phenomenon that currently dominates America\u27s youth sports landscape. Part II explores the dynamics driving families to commit substantial time and money to their children\u27s participation in youth sports. Part III outlines the danger the youth sports industry poses to children and society, focusing principally on premature sports specialization, spectator incivility, and socioeconomic stratification. Part IV examines Norway\u27s highly successful model of youth sports governance and presents it as a model for American youth sports reforms. Part V explores the United States federal government\u27s engagement in youth sports historically and contemporarily. Finally, Part VI presents a prescription for American youth sports reform

Youth sport: Friend or Foe?

Participation in youth sport has been promoted as part of a healthy lifestyle, with benefits for physical fitness, social development, and mental wellbeing. Yet, sport carries an inherent risk of injury, which for young athletes may have both immediate and long-term consequences. Amidst significant public debate about the pros and cons of youth sport, this review considers the physiological, psychological, and social factors that inform decisions around youth sport participation. With particular emphasis on growth and maturation, early sport specialization, and injury prevention, it highlights the unique features of the youth sport environment that can influence lifelong musculoskeletal health and physical activity behaviour. Though there have been few robust, longitudinal studies, current evidence suggests that sport has positive effects on child and adolescent wellbeing when maturity status and training load are managed appropriately. © 2019 Elsevier Lt

Youth sport: Friend or Foe?

Participation in youth sport has been promoted as part of a healthy lifestyle, with benefits for physical fitness, social development, and mental wellbeing. Yet, sport carries an inherent risk of injury, which for young athletes may have both immediate and long-term consequences. Amidst significant public debate about the pros and cons of youth sport, this review considers the physiological, psychological, and social factors that inform decisions around youth sport participation. With particular emphasis on growth and maturation, early sport specialization, and injury prevention, it highlights the unique features of the youth sport environment that can influence lifelong musculoskeletal health and physical activity behaviour. Though there have been few robust, longitudinal studies, current evidence suggests that sport has positive effects on child and adolescent wellbeing when maturity status and training load are managed appropriately. © 2019 Elsevier Lt

Critical success factors and their implementation in sports events organisation and management

A successful sport event is not only an implementation of the management principles from the organisers but a live adaptation process that requires a deep understanding of the political, economic and social environment that takes place in a specific area at a specific time. As success has many different parameters and stakeholders with different expectations who define success in different terms, organisers need to be flexible in their recognition of the specific characteristics of each sport event so as to adopt new ideas, methods and skills or develop novel know-how where is needed in order to ensure the event is a success. For this reason the objectives of this study are: a. To understand how event organisers define the success of an event, b. Identify the Critical Success Factors (CSFs) that influence the success of different types of sporting event, c. To propose a framework of CSFs for the sports events in order to develop a broader and deeper understanding of how to deliver a successful sporting event. In order to meet these three research objectives in this study twenty two people from five sporting organisations participated like FIBA, FINA, UEFA, the LAUSSANE TRIATHLON and the APHRODITE HALF MARATHON. In this multifaceted organisational environment in which event organisers operate, the recognition and identification of critical success factors for each event organisational area will provide a helpful framework for the successful organisation of events. The results of the present study were collected through semi-structured interviews and the classification and coding was done through use of NVivo 10 software. The study provides a useful basis for sports events organisation that connects the identified success factors that could influence the sports events with the CSFs, as a closely connected organisational set. Also this study focuses on what event organisers consider the critical success factors areas for a sport event to be and how they use them during the life cycle of the event organisation. In this, the key performance indicators, provide a clear sequence between the objectives, targets, action plans and measures that will take place during the event organisation. It considers a broad framework of CSFs, including communication, governmental and public support, financial, organisational, sport community, and stakeholders, technical and technological factors that could influence the success of the sport event. In addition, the study provides a framework for the determination of CSFs to support the sporting event organisation to keep track of the implementation progress of the event

Demanding Success: Examining the Effects of Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy on Performance-Related Outcomes

Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) is a psychotherapeutic approach based on the premise that when faced with adversity, irrational beliefs determine unhealthy negative emotions and maladaptive behaviors, whereas rational beliefs lead to healthy and adaptive alternatives. Using the ABC(DE) model the process of REBT aims to dispute and replace irrational with rational beliefs, ultimately providing a model of human functioning. Although the detrimental effects of irrational beliefs on psychological health are established, less is known about the deleterious effects on human behavior and performance. The thesis adds to the extant literature in two ways. First, the primary aim of this thesis were to examine effects of REBT, and irrational and rational self-statements on performance-related outcomes. A secondary aim of the thesis was to provide an insight into the effective application of REBT with elite athletes, and those with a physical disability. Using the context of sport, five studies were conducted in this thesis. Three applied field-based studies were conducted in Part I, exploring the effects of REBT on psychological, physiological, and performance outcomes in elite athletes. The findings indicated the effects of REBT (i.e., irrational beliefs, self-efficacy, perception of control, physiological markers, and performance markers) were most evident when delivered to an athlete on an individual basis and with a greater number of sessions. Data also indicated when the delivery of REBT was individually specific and sufficient in dose the effects on IBs and associated outcomes were immediate and maintained, signifying a fundamental shift towards a rational view of adversity (e.g., failure, setbacks, and rejection). In Part II, two experimental studies were conducted to examine the effects of irrational and rational self-statements on markers of performance. In contrast to findings from Part I the results showed no distinction in psychological (anxiety), physiological (heart rate), cognitions (eye gaze data), and performance outcomes (BHT and HPT) between irrational and rational approaches to an acute competitive task. Collectively the thesis findings provide partial support to a growing evidence-base demonstrating the value of REBT as an effective means of enhancing an athlete’s psychological approach and response to adversity/challenge (e.g., competition). The findings also offer a nuanced view between IBs/RBs and maladaptive/adaptive responses to adversity, overcoming what appears to be an overly simplistic dichotomy depicted within previous literature that IBs hinder, whereas RBs are wholly adaptive towards performance. Meeting the second thesis aim, in Chapter 7 valuable professional practice insights into the effective application of REBT with elite athletes and those with a physical disability were discussed. Elite sport and performance contexts are inherent with challenges and practitioners would be prudent to balance the short and long-term benefits of REBT on performance, and the detrimental effects of IBs on psychological health. Ultimately, research that examines the efficacy of interventions originally conceived within clinical settings such as REBT mark a shift in perspective for effective psychological support and alter the boundaries of techniques available to practitioners. Limitations and recommendations for future researchers are provided

RUNNING FOR INTEGRATION: CCNY AND THE PROMISE OF INTERRACIAL COOPERATION THROUGH BASKETBALL

In 1951, an investigation of gambling in college basketball by New York district attorney, Frank Hogan, ultimately led to the arrest of more than 30 players from seven schools, including six players from the City College of New York (CCNY). Just a year earlier in 1950, CCNY became the first racially integrated basketball team to win the national championship; and the only one to win the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and National Invitational Tournament (NIT) championships in the same season. Unfortunately, their accomplishments were overshadowed by the gambling scandals