Effects of Different Text Display Types on Reading Comprehension, Sustained Attention and Cognitive Load in Mobile Reading Contexts

Despite the popularity of mobile reading devices, many studies have indicated that small screens restrict information transmission, adversely affecting reading performance on mobile devices. Moreover, mobile reading typically occurs in different reading contexts. Therefore, suitable text display type for mobile reading in different reading contexts should be considered, such that learners can effectively read content. This work selected the frequently used static and dynamic text display types (i.e., Paging and Auto-scrolling) and assessed their effects on mobile reading performance. Furthermore, the features of static and dynamic text display types were considered when designing a mixed text type for mobile reading. Based on brainwave detector, reading comprehension test sheet, and cognitive load scale results, this work designed a mobile reading experiment with a two-factor experimental design to assess the effects of the selected static, dynamic, and designed text types, which were respectively presented in sitting, standing, and walking contexts, on reading comprehension, sustained attention, and cognitive load of learners. Experimental results show that sitting obtained the highest sustained attention and the mixed text garnered lowest sustained attention. Moreover, although analytical results show that no significant difference existed in overall reading comprehension with each text type presented with the mobile reading contexts, reading comprehension (i.e., memory, comprehension, and application types) was significantly affected by the reading context, and to some degree, the text display type. This work also found that the text display type is a major factor affecting learners’ cognitive load; however, learners’ cognitive load is not be affected by the considered reading contexts. Among the three text display types, the mixed type generates the highest cognitive load, followed by the dynamic type, and then the static type. In conclusion, the three reading contexts with the three text types have both advantages and disadvantages for reading comprehension, sustained attention, and cognitive load. As a result, text display type for mobile reading on small screens should be adjusted according to reading context or to improve reading comprehension, attention, or cognitive load.補正完畢國際Bali, IndonesiaID

Writing (and Reading) Appellate Briefs in the Digital Age

In this essay, Professor Beazley briefly reviews a slice of the voluminous research about how human beings read digital as opposed to paper text. In particular, she discusses studies of knowledge workers (defined to include those who use or generate knowledge in their work)4 and those who engage in active reading (defined as a reading process that includes nonsequential reading, searching a text, comparing texts, annotating, bookmarking, and the like).She concludes by making suggestions for legal readers, legal writers, courts, and database providers as to how best to accommodate the process of digital reading

Cognition and the Web

Empirical research related to the Web has typically focused on its impact to social relationships and wider society; however, the cognitive impact of the Web is also an increasing focus of scientific interest and research attention. In this paper, I attempt to provide an overview of what I see as the important issues in the debate regarding the relationship between human cognition and the Web. I argue that the Web is potentially poised to transform our cognitive and epistemic profiles, but that in order to understand the nature of this influence we need to countenance a position that factors in the available scientific evidence, the changing nature of our interaction with the Web, and the possibility that many of our everyday cognitive achievements rely on complex webs of social and technological scaffolding. I review the literature relating to the cognitive effects of current Web technology, and I attempt to anticipate the cognitive impact of next-generation technologies, such as Web-based augmented reality systems and the transition to data-centric modes of information representation. I suggest that additional work is required to more fully understand the cognitive impact of both current and future Web technologies, and I identify some of the issues for future scientific work in this area. Given that recent scientific effort around the Web has coalesced into a new scientific discipline, namely that of Web Science, I suggest that many of the issues related to cognition and the Web could form part of the emerging Web Science research agenda

Instructional Message Design: Theory, Research, and Practice

Message design is all around us, from the presentations we see in meetings and classes, to the instructions that come with our latest tech gadgets, to multi-million-dollar training simulations. In short, instructional message design is the real-world application of instructional and learning theories to design the tools and technologies used to communicate and effectively convey information. This field of study pulls from many applied sciences including cognitive psychology, industrial design, graphic design, instructional design, and human performance technology to name just a few. In this book we visit several foundational theories that guide our research, look at different real-world applications, and begin to discuss directions for future best practice. For instance, cognitive load and multimedia learning theories provide best practice, PowerPoint and simulations are only a few of the multitude of applications, and special needs learners and designing for cultural inclusiveness are only two of many areas where effective messages design can improve outcomes. Studying effective instructional message design tools and techniques has and will continue to be a critical aspect of the overall instructional design process. Hopefully, this book will serve as an introduction to these topics and inspire your curiosity to explore further

Exploring Digital and Print Text Experiences of Adolescent Readers

Digital and print texts, as well as the efficiency of reader engagement with them, have long been of interest in scholarly literature. Most of the studies undertaken in this connection seek to compare reader comprehension of these two text media. But what are the lived experiences of reading digital versus print? And how do those who are still expected to be growing in their reading skills experience immersion and distraction in either medium? This study utilizes a hermeneutic phenomenological approach to investigate high school students’ experiences of digital texts in order to examine how their experiences with digital texts differ from experiences with traditional print media. The students in this study all had experiences with reading both printed and digital texts in the classroom environment and had been exposed to purposeful instruction in digital literacy. Two rounds of data collection took place; a total of 22 adolescents were interviewed virtually and asked about their reading experiences involving both print and digital texts. Experiences with printed texts were often more emotional and more connected with the sense of smell. Digital texts were associated with a more deliberate focus, as well as a greater variety of distractions, many of which are connected with the device itself, such as notifications. While experiences with printed reading materials were more likely to be described as immersive, students also described experiences with digital texts, often shorter ones, having immersive characteristics. Recommendations include providing materials for adolescent students in a variety of formats and genres, as well as comfortable and private reading locations and time for adolescents to enjoy reading. By connecting with and living out positive reading experiences, adolescents can improve their reading skills and become lifelong learners because they are lifelong readers

Scrolling vs Paging: Reading Performance and Preference of Reading Modes in Long-form Online News

This study explores the impact of scrolling and dynamic pagination in long-form online documents on reader performance and reader experience. Previous research has produced mixed results, indicating no difference between modes, or a positive effect favouring scrolling. Recent advances in web standards have enabled simpler, dynamic, performant methods of pagination to tailor content responsively to any screen, meriting renewed study in this area. This paper uses one such method to load subsequent online news pages instantly without buffering. In an online browser experiment with 38 participants, an increase in reading speed in the scrolling mode was found at a level of significance. This follows previous research which has suggested that while a scrolling presentation style exacts extra demands on working memory capacity (WMC), many current web users have developed compensatory strategies and cognitive flexibility for navigating scrolling web documents

EFFECTS OF AN iPAD iBOOK ON READING COMPREHENSION, ELECTRODERMAL ACTIVITY, AND ENGAGEMENT FOR ADOLESCENTS WITH DISABILITIES

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of an iPad iBook for adolescents with disabilities. With its release in 2012, the iBooks Author software for the Apple iPad allows classroom teachers to create accessible and engaging textbooks. Leveraging media and interactive widgets, iBooks Author holds promise for delivering content to learners of all needs. However, little empirical research currently supports the iPad as a textbook. In this intervention study, 22 middle school students with disabilities learned to identify and understand features of textbooks. Participants were randomly assigned to one of two cohorts and alternated reading between a traditional textbook and iPad iBook across six science textbook chapters. Using a repeated measures design, quantitative and qualitative data were collected for reading comprehension scores, electrodermal activity, cognitive workload, and participant satisfaction. Results indicated no significant differences in reading comprehension scores, electrodermal activity levels, or cognitive workload scores. Satisfaction measures indicated students significantly preferred the iPad iBook. Emergent themes from participant interviews, fidelity checks, and task analyses are also discussed

Embedding mobile learning into everyday life settings

The increasing ubiquity of smartphones has changed the way we interact with information and acquire new knowledge. The prevalence of personal mobile devices in our everyday lives creates new opportunities for learning that exceed the narrow boundaries of a school’s classroom and provide the foundations for lifelong learning. Learning can now happen whenever and wherever we are; whether on the sofa at home, on the bus during our commute, or on a break at work. However, the flexibility offered by mobile learning also creates its challenges. Being able to learn anytime and anywhere does not necessarily result in learning uptake. Without the school environment’s controlled schedule and teacher guidance, the learners must actively initiate learning activities, keep up repetition schedules, and cope with learning in interruption-prone everyday environments. Both interruptions and infrequent repetition can harm the learning process and long-term memory retention. We argue that current mobile learning applications insufficiently support users in coping with these challenges. In this thesis, we explore how we can utilize the ubiquity of mobile devices to ensure frequent engagement with the content, focusing primarily on language learning and supporting users in dealing with learning breaks and interruptions. Following a user-centered design approach, we first analyzed mobile learning behavior in everyday settings. Based on our findings, we proposed concepts and designs, developed research prototypes, and evaluated them in laboratory and field evaluations with a specific focus on user experience. To better understand users’ learning behavior with mobile devices, we first characterized their interaction with mobile learning apps through a detailed survey and a diary study. Both methods confirmed the enormous diversity in usage situations and preferences. We observed that learning often happens unplanned, infrequently, among the company of friends or family, or while simultaneously performing secondary tasks such as watching TV or eating. The studies further uncovered a significant prevalence of interruptions in everyday settings that affected users’ learning behavior, often leading to suspension and termination of the learning activities. We derived design implications to support learning in diverse situations, particularly aimed at mitigating the adverse effects of multitasking and interruptions. The proposed strategies should help designers and developers create mobile learning applications that adapt to the opportunities and challenges of learning in everyday mobile settings. We explored four main challenges, emphasizing that (1) we need to consider that Learning in Everyday Settings is Diverse and Interruption-prone, (2) learning performance is affected by Irregular and Infrequent Practice Behavior, (3) we need to move From Static to Personalized Learning, and (4) that Interruptions and Long Learning Breaks can Negatively Affect Performance. To tackle these challenges, we propose to embed learning into everyday smartphone interactions, which could foster frequent engagement with – and implicitly personalize – learning content (according to users’ interests and skills). Further, we investigate how memory cues could be applied to support task resumption after interruptions in mobile learning. To confirm that our idea of embedding learning into everyday interactions can increase exposure, we developed an application integrating learning tasks into the smartphone authentication process. Since unlocking the smartphone is a frequently performed action without any other purpose, our subjects appreciated the idea of utilizing this process to perform quick and simple learning interactions. Evidence from a comparative user study showed that embedding learning tasks into the unlocking mechanism led to significantly more interactions with the learning content without impairing the learning quality. We further explored a method for embedding language comprehension assessment into users’ digital reading and listening activities. By applying physiological measurements as implicit input, we reliably detected unknown words during laboratory evaluations. Identifying such knowledge gaps could be used for the provision of in-situ support and to inform the generation of personalized language learning content tailored to users’ interests and proficiency levels. To investigate memory cueing as a concept to support task resumption after interruptions, we complemented a theoretical literature analysis of existing applications with two research probes implementing and evaluating promising design concepts. We showed that displaying memory cues when the user resumes the learning activity after an interruption improves their subjective user experience. A subsequent study presented an outlook on the generalizability of memory cues beyond the narrow use case of language learning. We observed that the helpfulness of memory cues for reflecting on prior learning is highly dependent on the design of the cues, particularly the granularity of the presented information. We consider interactive cues for specific memory reactivation (e.g., through multiple-choice questions) a promising scaffolding concept for connecting individual micro-learning sessions when learning in everyday settings. The tools and applications described in this thesis are a starting point for designing applications that support learning in everyday settings. We broaden the understanding of learning behavior and highlight the impact of interruptions in our busy everyday lives. While this thesis focuses mainly on language learning, the concepts and methods have the potential to be generalized to other domains, such as STEM learning. We reflect on the limitations of the presented concepts and outline future research perspectives that utilize the ubiquity of mobile devices to design mobile learning interactions for everyday settings.Die Allgegenwärtigkeit von Smartphones verändert die Art und Weise wie wir mit Informationen umgehen und Wissen erwerben. Die weite Verbreitung von mobilen Endgeräten in unserem täglichen Leben führt zu neuen Möglichkeiten des Lernens, welche über die engen Grenzen eines Klassenraumes hinausreichen und das Fundament für lebenslanges Lernen schaffen. Lernen kann nun zu jeder Zeit und an jedem Ort stattfinden: auf dem Sofa Zuhause, im Bus während des Pendelns oder in der Pause auf der Arbeit. Die Flexibilität des mobilen Lernens geht jedoch zeitgleich mit Herausforderungen einher. Ohne den kontrollierten Ablaufplan und die Unterstützung der Lehrpersonen im schulischen Umfeld sind die Lernenden selbst dafür verantwortlich, aktiv Lernsitzungen zu initiieren, Wiederholungszyklen einzuhalten und Lektionen in unterbrechungsanfälligen Alltagssituationen zu meistern. Sowohl Unterbrechungen als auch unregelmäßige Wiederholung von Inhalten können den Lernprozess behindern und der Langzeitspeicherung der Informationen schaden. Wir behaupten, dass aktuelle mobile Lernanwendungen die Nutzer*innen nur unzureichend in diesen Herausforderungen unterstützen. In dieser Arbeit erforschen wir, wie wir uns die Allgegenwärtigkeit mobiler Endgeräte zunutze machen können, um zu erreichen, dass Nutzer*innen regelmäßig mit den Lerninhalten interagieren. Wir fokussieren uns darauf, sie im Umgang mit Unterbrechungen und Lernpausen zu unterstützen. In einem nutzerzentrierten Designprozess analysieren wir zunächst das Lernverhalten auf mobilen Endgeräten in alltäglichen Situationen. Basierend auf den Erkenntnissen schlagen wir Konzepte und Designs vor, entwickeln Forschungsprototypen und werten diese in Labor- und Feldstudien mit Fokus auf User Experience (wörtl. “Nutzererfahrung”) aus. Um das Lernverhalten von Nutzer*innen mit mobilen Endgeräten besser zu verstehen, versuchen wir zuerst die Interaktionen mit mobilen Lernanwendungen durch eine detaillierte Umfrage und eine Tagebuchstudie zu charakterisieren. Beide Methoden bestätigen eine enorme Vielfalt von Nutzungssituationen und -präferenzen. Wir beobachten, dass Lernen oft ungeplant, unregelmäßig, im Beisein von Freunden oder Familie, oder während der Ausübung anderer Tätigkeiten, beispielsweise Fernsehen oder Essen, stattfindet. Die Studien decken zudem Unterbrechungen in Alltagssituationen auf, welche das Lernverhalten der Nutzer*innen beeinflussen und oft zum Aussetzen oder Beenden der Lernaktivität führen. Wir leiten Implikationen ab, um Lernen in vielfältigen Situationen zu unterstützen und besonders die negativen Einflüsse von Multitasking und Unterbrechungen abzuschwächen. Die vorgeschlagenen Strategien sollen Designer*innen und Entwickler*innen helfen, mobile Lernanwendungen zu erstellen, welche sich den Möglichkeiten und Herausforderungen von Lernen in Alltagssituationen anpassen. Wir haben vier zentrale Herausforderungen identifiziert: (1) Lernen in Alltagssituationen ist divers und anfällig für Unterbrechungen; (2) Die Lerneffizienz wird durch unregelmäßiges Wiederholungsverhalten beeinflusst; (3) Wir müssen von statischem zu personalisiertem Lernen übergehen; (4) Unterbrechungen und lange Lernpausen können dem Lernen schaden. Um diese Herausforderungen anzugehen, schlagen wir vor, Lernen in alltägliche Smartphoneinteraktionen einzubetten. Dies führt zu einer vermehrten Beschäftigung mit Lerninhalten und könnte zu einer impliziten Personalisierung von diesen anhand der Interessen und Fähigkeiten der Nutzer*innen beitragen. Zudem untersuchen wir, wie Memory Cues (wörtl. “Gedächtnishinweise”) genutzt werden können, um das Fortsetzen von Aufgaben nach Unterbrechungen im mobilen Lernen zu erleichtern. Um zu zeigen, dass unsere Idee des Einbettens von Lernaufgaben in alltägliche Interaktionen wirklich die Beschäftigung mit diesen erhöht, haben wir eine Anwendung entwickelt, welche Lernaufgaben in den Entsperrprozess von Smartphones integriert. Da die Authentifizierung auf dem Mobilgerät eine häufig durchgeführte Aktion ist, welche keinen weiteren Mehrwert bietet, begrüßten unsere Studienteilnehmenden die Idee, den Prozess für die Durchführung kurzer und einfacher Lerninteraktionen zu nutzen. Ergebnisse aus einer vergleichenden Nutzerstudie haben gezeigt, dass die Einbettung von Aufgaben in den Entsperrprozess zu signifikant mehr Interaktionen mit den Lerninhalten führt, ohne dass die Lernqualität beeinträchtigt wird. Wir haben außerdem eine Methode untersucht, welche die Messung von Sprachverständnis in die digitalen Lese- und Höraktivitäten der Nutzer*innen einbettet. Mittels physiologischer Messungen als implizite Eingabe können wir in Laborstudien zuverlässig unbekannte Wörter erkennen. Die Aufdeckung solcher Wissenslücken kann genutzt werden, um in-situ Untestützung bereitzustellen und um personalisierte Lerninhalte zu generieren, welche auf die Interessen und das Wissensniveau der Nutzer*innen zugeschnitten sind. Um Memory Cues als Konzept für die Unterstützung der Aufgabenfortsetzung nach Unterbrechungen zu untersuchen, haben wir eine theoretische Literaturanalyse von bestehenden Anwendungen um zwei Forschungsarbeiten erweitert, welche vielversprechende Designkonzepte umsetzen und evaluieren. Wir haben gezeigt, dass die Präsentation von Memory Cues die subjektive User Experience verbessert, wenn der Nutzer die Lernaktivität nach einer Unterbrechung fortsetzt. Eine Folgestudie stellt einen Ausblick auf die Generalisierbarkeit von Memory Cues dar, welcher über den Tellerrand des Anwendungsfalls Sprachenlernen hinausschaut. Wir haben beobachtet, dass der Nutzen von Memory Cues für das Reflektieren über gelernte Inhalte stark von dem Design der Cues abhängt, insbesondere von der Granularität der präsentierten Informationen. Wir schätzen interaktive Cues zur spezifischen Gedächtnisaktivierung (z.B. durch Mehrfachauswahlfragen) als einen vielversprechenden Unterstützungsansatz ein, welcher individuelle Mikrolerneinheiten im Alltag verknüpfen könnte. Die Werkzeuge und Anwendungen, die in dieser Arbeit beschrieben werden, sind ein Startpunkt für das Design von Anwendungen, welche das Lernen in Alltagssituationen unterstützen. Wir erweitern das Verständnis, welches wir von Lernverhalten im geschäftigen Alltagsleben haben und heben den Einfluss von Unterbrechungen in diesem hervor. Während sich diese Arbeit hauptsächlich auf das Lernen von Sprachen fokussiert, haben die vorgestellten Konzepte und Methoden das Potential auf andere Bereiche übertragen zu werden, beispielsweise das Lernen von MINT Themen. Wir reflektieren über die Grenzen der präsentierten Konzepte und skizzieren Perspektiven für zukünftige Forschungsarbeiten, welche sich die Allgegenwärtigkeit von mobilen Endgeräten zur Gestaltung von Lernanwendungen für den Alltag zunutze machen