Single Event Effects in CMOS Image Sensors

In this work, 3T Active Pixel Sensors (APS) are exposed to heavy ions (N, Ar, Kr, Xe), and Single Event Effects (SEE) are studied. Devices were fully functional during exposure, no Single Event Latch-up (SEL) or Single Event Functional Interrupt (SEFI) happened. However Single Event Transient (SET) effects happened on frames: line disturbances, and half or full circular clusters of white pixels. The collection of charges in cluster was investigated with arrays of two pixel width (7 and 10 \textmu{}m), with bulk and epitaxial substrates. This paper shows technological and design parameters involved in the transient events. It also shows that STARDUST simulation software can predict cluster obtained for bulk substrate devices. However, the discrepancies in epitaxial layer devices are large - which shows the need for an improved model

Camera-on-a-Chip: TeChnology Transfer from saTurn To your Cell phone

The invention of the CMOS active pixel image sensor "camera-on-a-chip" at the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory at Caltech and its subsequent development and commercialization via the spinoff company Photobit Corporation are discussed. The article traces the arc of the technology from innovation, technology transfer, and entrepreneurial startup to its use today in nearly all mobile phone cameras, tablet and web cameras, medical and automotive cameras, and many other applications

VLSI Architecture and FPGA Prototyping of a Secure Digital Camera for Biometric Application

This thesis presents a secure digital camera (SDC) that inserts biometric data into images found in forms of identification such as the newly proposed electronic passport. However, putting biometric data in passports makes the data vulnerable for theft, causing privacy related issues. An effective solution to combating unauthorized access such as skimming (obtaining data from the passport's owner who did not willingly submit the data) or eavesdropping (intercepting information as it moves from the chip to the reader) could be judicious use of watermarking and encryption at the source end of the biometric process in hardware like digital camera or scanners etc. To address such issues, a novel approach and its architecture in the framework of a digital camera, conceptualized as an SDC is presented. The SDC inserts biometric data into passport image with the aid of watermarking and encryption processes. The VLSI (very large scale integration) architecture of the functional units of the SDC such as watermarking and encryption unit is presented. The result of the hardware implementation of Rijndael advanced encryption standard (AES) and a discrete cosine transform (DCT) based visible and invisible watermarking algorithm is presented. The prototype chip can carry out simultaneous encryption and watermarking, which to our knowledge is the first of its kind. The encryption unit has a throughput of 500 Mbit/s and the visible and invisible watermarking unit has a max frequency of 96.31 MHz and 256 MHz respectively

Radiation damage analysis of the swept charge device for the C1XS instrument

This thesis was submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy and awarded by Brunel University.This thesis is concerned with ensuring high energy resolution from the swept charge device (SCD) CCD54, essentially a non-pixellated version of the charge coupled device (CCD), for use in the Chandrayaan-1 X-ray Spectrometer (C1XS). Of particular interest is the effect on performance due to the radiation damage, caused by protons, the CCD54s used in C1XS will receive during the transfer to the Moon and during the two years in lunar orbit. Chapter 2 reviews the atomic structure, the formation and detection of X-rays, and the operation of a CCD. Chapter 3 discusses the space radiation environment and the damaging effects it has on CCDs, for example increasing dark current and charge transfer inefficiency. Chapter 4 presents the basic laboratory equipment and procedure used during the experimental work, and details the initial optimisation and characterisation, the pre-flight characterisation of devices available for use in C1XS, the measurement of the depletion depth, and quantum efficiency of the CCD54. Chapter 5 details the results of the initial proton irradiation study, intended to demonstrate the ability of the CCD54 to provide excellent scientific data over the two years at the Moon. Chapter 6 describes a second irradiation study covering a more detailed investigation of the damage effects, investigating dark current, trap energy levels, and charge transfer inefficiency. Chapter 7 describes work conducted to assist the C1XS science team in the development of an X-ray fluorescence model, to be used with X-ray spectra provided by the X-ray solar monitor and the spectra detected by C1XS, to provide elemental abundance information of the lunar surface. It also presents the initial C1XS results from the Moon, and a brief comparison of the CCD54 with other semiconductor X-ray fluorescence detectors. Chapter 8 describes the final conclusions and recommendations for further work, including a study of the radiation damage effects during the two years at the Moon and the future development of SCD detectors for use in space

Radiation Damage Analysis of the Swept Charge Device for the C1XS Instrument

Since the dawn of the space age the ability to capture images from orbit and deep space missions has proved invaluable. Interference caused by the Earth’s atmosphere is bypassed, thus allowing for the detailed observation of distant and faint objects that would be hard to detect using ground based observatories. However, this method introduces a number of new problems, these include placing the spacecraft into a viable and suitable orbit, pointing stability, data retrieval, power consumption, and problems associated with the vacuum of space, micrometeoroids, orbital debris, and the thermal and radiation environment. The focus of this thesis is concerned with ensuring high energy resolution from the swept charge devices (SCDs), essentially a non-pixellated version of the charge coupled device (CCD), for use in the Chandrayaan-1 X-ray Spectrometer (C1XS). C1XS, launched onboard Chandrayaan-1, was designed to detect the X-ray fluorescence, caused by solar flares, from the lunar surface. To ensure the instrument was a success a radiation damage study was performed, making recommendations on device operating conditions, instrument design and the future development of the SCD. A full device characterisation and the assistance provided to the C1XS science teamare also discussed

Matrix Transform Imager Architecture for On-Chip Low-Power Image Processing

Camera-on-a-chip systems have tried to include carefully chosen signal processing units for better functionality, performance and also to broaden the applications they can be used for. Image processing sensors have been possible due advances in CMOS active pixel sensors (APS) and neuromorphic focal plane imagers. Some of the advantages of these systems are compact size, high speed and parallelism, low power dissipation, and dense system integration. One can envision using these chips for portable and inexpensive video cameras on hand-held devices like personal digital assistants (PDA) or cell-phones In neuromorphic modeling of the retina it would be very nice to have processing capabilities at the focal plane while retaining the density of typical APS imager designs. Unfortunately, these two goals have been mostly incompatible. We introduce our MAtrix Transform Imager Architecture (MATIA) that uses analog floating--gate devices to make it possible to have computational imagers with high pixel densities. The core imager performs computations at the pixel plane, but still has a fill-factor of 46 percent - comparable to the high fill-factors of APS imagers. The processing is performed continuously on the image via programmable matrix operations that can operate on the entire image or blocks within the image. The resulting data-flow architecture can directly perform all kinds of block matrix image transforms. Since the imager operates in the subthreshold region and thus has low power consumption, this architecture can be used as a low-power front end for any system that utilizes these computations. Various compression algorithms (e.g. JPEG), that use block matrix transforms, can be implemented using this architecture. Since MATIA can be used for gradient computations, cheap image tracking devices can be implemented using this architecture. Other applications of this architecture can range from stand-alone universal transform imager systems to systems that can compute stereoscopic depth.Ph.D.Committee Chair: Hasler, Paul; Committee Member: David Anderson; Committee Member: DeWeerth, Steve; Committee Member: Jackson, Joel; Committee Member: Smith, Mar

Substrate-Dependent Photodetection with Functional Nanomaterials

Dielektrische Einflüsse auf nanostrukturierte Materialien sind bekannt, jedoch in Bezug auf die Geschwindigkeit der Photodetektion noch kaum erforscht. Diese Arbeit behandelt den Einfluss des Substrates auf die Schaltgeschwindigkeit funktioneller Nanomaterialien am Beispiel von CdSe Quantenpunkten und WSe2 Kristallen und berücksichtigt dabei sowohl die Zeit, die bis zum Erreichen des Gleichgewichtszustandes benötigt wird, als auch das Verhalten des Detektors im instationären (Nicht-Gleichgewichts) Zustand. Ersteres kann Informationen bezüglich des geschwindigkeitsbestimmenden Faktors des Photodetektors liefern, während letzteres die im Detektor vorliegenden Abklingmechanismen aufzeigen kann.Dielectric influences on nanostructured materials are widely known but hardly explored in terms of the speed of photodetection. This work deals with the influence of the substrate on the speed of response of functional nanomaterials considering CdSe quantum dots and WSe2 crystals as examples, and takes into account both the time required to reach the steady state and the performance of the detector in the transient (non-steady state) condition. The former can provide information regarding the speed limiting factor of the photodetector, while the latter can reveal the decay mechanisms present in the detector

A CMOS 90nm Digital Pixel Sensor Intended for a Visual Cortical Stimulator

RÉSUMÉ La capture d’images et le traitement d’images et de signaux font partie des domaines les plus en vogue de nos jours. Un autre domaine qui retient l’attention des chercheurs à travers le monde est celui qui regroupe les applications biomédicales - en particulier celles qui font le pont entre l’électronique et la biologie. L’équipe Polystim œuvre sur différents projets à la pointe de la technologie qui touchent à ces domaines, dont le projet Cortivision: un stimulateur visuel cortical. Le système englobe la capture et le traitement d’images ainsi que la stimulation du cortex pour donner une certaine perception d’images aux patients souffrant de cécité. Le but de ce travail est de concevoir le module de capture d’images de ce système. Les modes d’opération du capteur d’images doivent être configurables par l’usager. Il doit se distinguer par une gamme dynamique élevée, une consommation de puissance réduite, une haute vitesse d’acquisition, une surface réduite, la portabilité, la possibilité d’avoir du traitement d’images sur puce, et la facilité de l’intégrer dans un système sur puce avec le reste des modules de Cortivision. Un DPS (Digital Pixel Sensor) CMOS a été conçu et fabriqué avec la nouvelle technologie CMOS 90nm. Chaque pixel comprend une photodiode, un circuit de conversion de photocourant, un convertisseur analogique à numérique et une mémoire numérique de 8 bits, dans une surface de 9 µm x 9 µm avec un facteur de remplissage de 26% et 57 transistors. Le capteur offre plusieurs modes d’opération: • Un mode d’intégration linéaire. • Un mode logarithmique avec une gamme dynamique étendue qui permet d’accéder aux pixels indépendamment du temps mais avec une diminution de linéarité et un bruit plus prononcé. • Un mode différentiel qui soustrait deux images successives à même la puce pour obtenir une image binaire. Ce mode permet d’accélérer le traitement d’images et fonctionne à une vitesse plus élevée. Il peut être utilisé simultanément avec le mode linéaire ou avec le mode logarithmique. • Un mode d’expositions multiples qui est une option du mode linéaire pour augmenter la gamme dynamique, mais qui aurait l’effet de réduire la vitesse d’acquisition.----------ABSTRACT The image sensing and image processing fields make up some of the hottest topics in today’s industrial and research communities. Another field that is getting a lot of attention is biomedical applications - especially the combination of electronics to biology. The Polystim team is working on some state-of-the-art projects encompassing all that. One of these is the Cortivision project that consists of a visual cortical stimulator. The system comprises image sensing, image processing, and brain cortex stimulation to help blind patients acquire a sense of visual perception. The goal of this work is to cover the image sensing portion of the system. This requires the design and implementation of an image sensor which is user configurable to operate in several modes, has a high dynamic range, low power consumption, high frame rate capability, reduced surface area, is portable, allows some on-chip image processing, and can easily be integrated in a system-on-chip with the rest of the Cortivision modules. A CMOS Digital Pixel Sensor was designed and fabricated using the novel CMOS 90nm technology. Each pixel consists of a Photodiode, a photo-current conversion circuit, an Analog-to-Digital Converter and a digital 8-bit memory. It has a pixel pitch of 9µm with a Fill-Factor of 26% and 57 transistors. The sensor offers several modes of operation: • A linear integration mode. • A logarithmic mode that extends the dynamic range and allows time-independent pixel access at the cost of a forsaken linearity and an increase in noise. • A differential (or better termed difference) mode that allows subtracting two consecutive frames to obtain a binary image. This mode helps speed up the image processing and allows a very high frame rate. It can be used in conjunction with either the linear or the logarithmic modes of operation. • A multiple exposure mode that can be used in combination with the linear mode to increase the dynamic range at the expense of a decrease in frame rate

Exploring information retrieval using image sparse representations:from circuit designs and acquisition processes to specific reconstruction algorithms

New advances in the field of image sensors (especially in CMOS technology) tend to question the conventional methods used to acquire the image. Compressive Sensing (CS) plays a major role in this, especially to unclog the Analog to Digital Converters which are generally representing the bottleneck of this type of sensors. In addition, CS eliminates traditional compression processing stages that are performed by embedded digital signal processors dedicated to this purpose. The interest is twofold because it allows both to consistently reduce the amount of data to be converted but also to suppress digital processing performed out of the sensor chip. For the moment, regarding the use of CS in image sensors, the main route of exploration as well as the intended applications aims at reducing power consumption related to these components (i.e. ADC & DSP represent 99% of the total power consumption). More broadly, the paradigm of CS allows to question or at least to extend the Nyquist-Shannon sampling theory. This thesis shows developments in the field of image sensors demonstrating that is possible to consider alternative applications linked to CS. Indeed, advances are presented in the fields of hyperspectral imaging, super-resolution, high dynamic range, high speed and non-uniform sampling. In particular, three research axes have been deepened, aiming to design proper architectures and acquisition processes with their associated reconstruction techniques taking advantage of image sparse representations. How the on-chip implementation of Compressed Sensing can relax sensor constraints, improving the acquisition characteristics (speed, dynamic range, power consumption) ? How CS can be combined with simple analysis to provide useful image features for high level applications (adding semantic information) and improve the reconstructed image quality at a certain compression ratio ? Finally, how CS can improve physical limitations (i.e. spectral sensitivity and pixel pitch) of imaging systems without a major impact neither on the sensing strategy nor on the optical elements involved ? A CMOS image sensor has been developed and manufactured during this Ph.D. to validate concepts such as the High Dynamic Range - CS. A new design approach was employed resulting in innovative solutions for pixels addressing and conversion to perform specific acquisition in a compressed mode. On the other hand, the principle of adaptive CS combined with the non-uniform sampling has been developed. Possible implementations of this type of acquisition are proposed. Finally, preliminary works are exhibited on the use of Liquid Crystal Devices to allow hyperspectral imaging combined with spatial super-resolution. The conclusion of this study can be summarized as follows: CS must now be considered as a toolbox for defining more easily compromises between the different characteristics of the sensors: integration time, converters speed, dynamic range, resolution and digital processing resources. However, if CS relaxes some material constraints at the sensor level, it is possible that the collected data are difficult to interpret and process at the decoder side, involving massive computational resources compared to so-called conventional techniques. The application field is wide, implying that for a targeted application, an accurate characterization of the constraints concerning both the sensor (encoder), but also the decoder need to be defined

Radiation damage analysis of the swept charge device for the C1XS instrument

This thesis is concerned with ensuring high energy resolution from the swept charge device (SCD) CCD54, essentially a non-pixellated version of the charge coupled device (CCD), for use in the Chandrayaan-1 X-ray Spectrometer (C1XS). Of particular interest is the effect on performance due to the radiation damage, caused by protons, the CCD54s used in C1XS will receive during the transfer to the Moon and during the two years in lunar orbit. Chapter 2 reviews the atomic structure, the formation and detection of X-rays, and the operation of a CCD. Chapter 3 discusses the space radiation environment and the damaging effects it has on CCDs, for example increasing dark current and charge transfer inefficiency. Chapter 4 presents the basic laboratory equipment and procedure used during the experimental work, and details the initial optimisation and characterisation, the pre-flight characterisation of devices available for use in C1XS, the measurement of the depletion depth, and quantum efficiency of the CCD54. Chapter 5 details the results of the initial proton irradiation study, intended to demonstrate the ability of the CCD54 to provide excellent scientific data over the two years at the Moon. Chapter 6 describes a second irradiation study covering a more detailed investigation of the damage effects, investigating dark current, trap energy levels, and charge transfer inefficiency. Chapter 7 describes work conducted to assist the C1XS science team in the development of an X-ray fluorescence model, to be used with X-ray spectra provided by the X-ray solar monitor and the spectra detected by C1XS, to provide elemental abundance information of the lunar surface. It also presents the initial C1XS results from the Moon, and a brief comparison of the CCD54 with other semiconductor X-ray fluorescence detectors. Chapter 8 describes the final conclusions and recommendations for further work, including a study of the radiation damage effects during the two years at the Moon and the future development of SCD detectors for use in space.EThOS - Electronic Theses Online ServiceGBUnited Kingdo