Spatial Distribution, Sources, and Associated Risks of Toxic Metals In Red Sea Sediments Near Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

Coastal areas are known to be sequestration points for various pollutants generated from industrial and urban activities. Diverse anthropogenic pollutants are typically delivered to coastal sediments via atmospheric or fluvial processes. Heavy metals, such as chromium, copper, manganese, zinc, and lead, are some of the toxic contaminants of greatest concernbecause of their well-established detrimental effects on the marine environment. In recent years, Saudi Arabia has encouraged activities to bring about economic development, particularly along the Red Sea. Jeddah is located on the Red Sea and is the second largest city in Saudi Arabia, famous for its beautiful coral reef. In this dissertation, a variety of studies were applied not only to in situ sediment samples but also to aerosol particulate matter. The primary goal of the work is to determine the degree of heavy metal pollution in the region and, for key contaminants, identify their sources. The research plan in the dissertation included three phases that are discussed in the first chapter. The first phase included review of the literature, a field survey to design a sampling plan and identify thecollection sample points, and meetings with officials, including a Coast Guard representative to obtain the necessary permissions. The second phase involved collecting sediments and air filter samples and preparing the samples for laboratory analysis. The third phase comprised interpreting the results to obtain valuable relations between measured indices, and to determine the principal sources of pollution. Chapter 2 of this dissertation investigated the state of pollution in eighty sediments focusing on six heavy metals: chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), and lead (Pb). The study also quantified the degree of pollution in sediments using various risk indices, including Geo-accumulation Indices (Igeo), Enrichment factors (Ef), Contamination factors (Cf), Pollution Load Indices (PLI), Potential Ecological Risk Indices (PERI) and Potential Toxicity Response Indices (RI). Results showed that the majority of the polluted sediments were recorded in the Middle and Southlocations, and Pb showed the highest concentration of the metals in the study area (77.34 mg/kg). The Igeo values for Pb in the Middle stations showed that 10% of the stations were categorized as moderately polluted, whereas 20% of the South location was classified as moderately polluted. The RI values in the South stations, especially the northern stations within the South location, indicate high Pb pollution in the area. This study recommended that appropriate management strategies should be applied for the Jeddah Coast to control potential pollution sources and prevent permanent hazards to marine ecology currently documented elsewhere. Additionally, the study implicated that the area needs more tracer studies such as isotopic and speciation studies that could be used to investigate the sources of the Pb in sediments, water, and even in airborne aerosols near the shoreline. The findings of chapter 2 led us to study Pb isotopes in the sediment samples and the results are described in chapter 3. For the first time in the Red Sea area, the Pb isotopic ratios of 206Pb, 207Pb, and 208Pb were examined to evaluate the sources of Pb. A two end-member model and a three component fractional contribution model were both used to identify possible Pb sources and their percentage contributions in the study area. The isotopic data and modeling show that natural and anthropogenic sources such as gasoline and an identified unknown source contribute to the Pb load of Jeddah\u27s sediments. The most obvious finding to emerge from this study is that different activities were controlling the Pb isotopes for each location. The study concluded that the Middle location was the most effected location by the Pb from different sources, and the Ef outcomes revealed that 80% of the sediment samples were considered extremely severely enriched with Pb. This study has raised many topics of concern in need of further investigation, including the ratio of Pb isotopes in air samples to Pb isotopes in the soil and isotopic variance with time, presumably recorded in sediment cores. Finally, in chapter 4, the concentration of the heavy metals of particulate matter (PM) with a size less than 2.5micrometers is determined. The results of this study indicate that the PM2.5 concentration was higher in the North location,and the Pb concentration was higher in the Middle location. The results of the backward trajectory analysis help us understand the sudden concentration increase of PM on August 2 and September 13, 2017. On those dates, Jeddah\u27satmosphere was affected by a massive dust storms originating in the Tokar Desert in northeastern Sudan. According to Principle Component Analysis (PCA) results, the four principal sources of the heavy metals in the Jeddah ambient air were particles originating from the marine aerosol and re-suspension of soil-derived particles, particles originating from the land in addition to the anthropogenic contribution of Fe, particles originating from oil combustion, and particles originating from incineration and fossil fuel combustion. The outcomes of the dissertation provide the spatial mapping of the distribution of heavy metals as well as their possible sources. This will help develop pollution control measures and serve as a resource for choosing optimum remediationmethods for water and sediments on the Saudi Arabian coast of the Red Sea. Taken together, the findings of each chapterare impactful and have many important implications for future practice

A proposal for the better utilization of the Saudi Coast Guard in providing the immediate emergency response to oil spills

The dissertation is an introductory study to the ways in which the Saudi Coast Guard can be best organized for sharing the responsibilities for responding to oil spills in the territorial waters of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, with the Meteorological and Environment Protection Agency of the Ministry of Defence. A brief look is taken at the uses and the state of the marine and coastal environment. Marine areas are described in some detail. An idea of the intensity of oil production and transportation is given. The need for creating background information directed to the future environment control department is stressed throughout the dissertation. This begins with the description of the main international legal instruments, conventions and treaties. A discussion of Law 157 of 20/11/1411 H is also offered. Policies, strategies, classification of oil spills, environmental control and control \u3e procedures are explored with a view to define the way in which the organization can be best structured. An Environmental Control Management Steering Group, the Environmental Protection Task Force of the Saudi Coast Guard is proposed. Responsibilities and functions of the new department are listed. One chapter is dedicated to the details of the proposed organization of the Environment Protection Task Force. The roles of the different elements of the organizational structure, in emergency situations and non-emergency situations are described. A description of the structure and objectives of the Task Force is given. The response to marine oil t spill is considered in detail. Emphasis is placed on oil spills from tankers

Guidelines for the establishment of a search and rescue service

The main reason for embarking on this topic is the urgent necessity for establishing a Search and Rescue Service in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Many disasters have been caused by a minor accident such as electrical spark , or a match stick, hesitation in taking actions to avoid collisions, which result in loss of lives and property. To minimize such losses one must have a responsive Search and Rescue Service, which unfortunately is not properly established in the Kingdom. The area is congested with traffic without any search and rescue coverage by the Kingdom or even neighbouring countries, which should be available in all coastal states to render such services. This is part of the coastal states international obligation as stated in :- 1) The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974 (SOLAS \u2774), Regulation 15 - Chapter V. 2) The UN Convention on the High Seas, 1958 - Article 12(2). 3) The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1978\u27 (UNCLOS III). Article 98 (2) refers to: Duty to render assistance. As I have discovered, carrying out research in this field was hard but my educational background and speciality as a technical person (Marine Engineer) have assisted greatly whilst conducting such a task. However, because of the importance and necessity of this topic for the Kingdom which oversees two strategic maritime zones (the Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf) each as important as the other, and since the Kingdom is the leading country in the region in many aspects, she must obviously and automatically play the leading role and take the necessary steps to establish such a valuable and active service in the field of Search and Rescue . She should take into consideration her ability to conduct such a service after careful study and well established research nationally, regionally, and internationally. Therefore this study has chiefly been derived from information provided by states which have had considerable experience in the field of Search and Rescue, e.g. Federal Republic of Germany, Sweden, United Kingdom, United States, and Canada. The study and research was not limited to reading their publications. Field visits were made to most of them mainly: United States of America, the Federal Republic of Germany, as well as the host country of the World Maritime University - Sweden. Even though the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has the means to establish a Search and Rescue Service with the latest techniques available, my study was based on providing practical and economical Search and Rescue coverage of the area

Maritime boundary delimitation of the kingdom of Saudi Arabia a study in political geography

Saudi Arabia was the first Arab country to claim offshore jurisdiction and the first Middle Eastern state to define its offshore waters. This study examines the principal geographical factors which have resulted in the present Saudi maritime boundary. The semi-enclosed sea, islands, reefs, natural resources of the continental shelf, exclusive economic zone and coastline, can all be considered principal geographical factors that have influenced Saudi territorial waters policy. Islands, for example, play an effective role in increasing the area of Saudi internal waters, increasing the breadth of the territorial sea, straight baseline and the delimitation of maritime boundary in the Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf with opposite and adjacent states. Natural resources demanded the swift implementation of unique agreements, used later as an example worldwide. The author has drawn the 1958 Saudi straight baseline and a theoretical straight baseline based on the 1982 Convention and states practice. The territorial sea which is drawn on this basis along the Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf coasts, is affected by the presence of islands and reefs. The Saudi Exclusive Fishing Zone claimed by the 1974 decree gave the Kingdom the same right as the 1982 Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), but the Kingdom had to adapt the latter in order to gain more control over its resources and non-mineral activities. The importance of the 1949 Saudi decree can be found in the contribution made by Saudi Arabia to the development of the law of the sea, and to safeguarding the national hydrocarbon resources (natural gas and oil) on and below its seabed. Saudi Arabia engaged in several agreements, mainly in the Gulf, in order to define its boundary. This study has highlighted these agreements as a model which can be used in different parts of the world to solve similar disputes, and can be adopted as methods of maritime delimitation between opposite and adjacent states. The importance of the economic factor has been shown, along with security, as the main factor influencing the successful conclusion of such agreements, but where there is no such importance, the boundary may become less significant and by the absence of such motivation the boundary may not be defined. Saudi waters are a rich and highly important maritime area. This is based on the facts that Saudi Arabia has 30 per cent of the world seawater desalination plants; that the sea represents food, fuel and wealth to Saudi Arabia; and that the existence of huge deserts emphasises the importance of the sea

Protection against environmental pollution by noxious substances other than oil, with reference to the major ports of Saudi Arabia

This project examines the present situation regarding protection against marine environmental pollution by noxious substances, other than oil, in the major ports of Saudi Arabia. The existing facilities for such protection are investigated for each of the major ports in turn, and are summarised with comments on their strengths and weaknesses with reference to international requirements and recommendation. Proposals are then offered towards the improvement of these facilities with suggestions on how these proposals might be implemented

Water resources in Saudi Arabia with particular reference to Tihama Asir province

Although Saudi Arabia has made great progress in almost all aspects of development, the availability of water has remained problematic. It is, therefore, important to study water resources, and also the increasing water demands in Saudi Arabia in general, and in Tihama Asir in particular. Climate is influenced to a limited extent by the relatively high altitude of the mountains, especially where rainfall is concerned, and an annual average between 30mm and 300mm is recorded. The rate of evaporation, however, is very high, because of the cloudless sky and high temperatures. Runoff occurs only after torrential and monsoon rain, when the wadis collect floodwaters from their many tributaries. Two hundred dams have been built in recent years in an attempt to increase underground water recharge, and to provide potable water in sufficient quantity and quality, and to provide for irrigation. The ground water resources, including the shallow aquifers of wadis and the deep aquifers, could be of greater benefit with the modification of their current use. A large number of desalination plants have been constructed along the Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf to meet the increasing water demands of Saudi Arabia's increasing population. The utilization of treated sewage effluent should be increased to stop the threat of ground water contamination and to reduce the pressure exerted on available resources. Results indicate that modem irrigation methods reach high levels of average field irrigation efficiency, and traditional practices show the highest average levels of energetics performance. Based on water resources and water budget analysis the following recommendations are suggested to the Ministry of Agriculture and Water with regard to water uses in Saudi Arabia and Tihama Asir in particular.- Modernize traditional and intermediate irrigation methods on as many acres as feasible.- Introduce small green-houses on as many private farms as possible.- Develop water resources extension service programmes and training programmes that address fundamental aspects of improving domestic water use, and alternatives to natural and artificial supplies. The developed database can be used as an information source to support future water resource-oriented decision making