Are simultaneous interpreters expert bilinguals, unique bilinguals, or both?

Simultaneous interpretation is a cognitively demanding process that requires a high level of language management. Previous studies on bilinguals have suggested that extensive practice managing two languages leads to enhancements in cognitive control. Thus, interpreters may be expected to show benefits beyond those seen in bilinguals, either as an extension of previously-seen benefits or in areas specific to interpretation. The present study examined professional interpreters (N = 23) and matched multilinguals (N = 21) on memory tests, the color-word Stroop task, the Attention Network Test, and a non-linguistic task-switching paradigm. The interpreters did not show advantages in conflict resolution or switching cost where bilingual benefits have been noted. However, an interpretation-specific advantage emerged on the mixing cost in the task-switching paradigm. Additionally, the interpreters had larger verbal and spatial memory spans. Interpreters do not continue to garner benefits from bilingualism, but they do appear to possess benefits specific to their experience with simultaneous interpretation

Short-Term Memory Improvement After Simultaneous Interpretation Training

open4siSimultaneous interpretation (SI) is a cognitively demanding process that has been associated with enhanced memory and executive functions. It is unclear, however, if the previously evidenced interpreter advantages are developed through training and/or experience with SI or rather represent inherent characteristics that allow success in the field. The present study aimed to disentangle these possibilities through a longitudinal examination of students earning a Master of Conference Interpreting and two control populations. The students were tested at the beginning and end of their programs on measures of memory and executive functioning that have previously demonstrated an interpreter advantage. The results revealed no inherent advantage among the students of interpretation. However, an SI training-specific advantage was revealed in verbal short-term memory; the students of interpretation, but not the two control groups, showed a gain between the testing sessions. This controlled longitudinal study demonstrates that training in simultaneous interpretation is associated with cognitive changes.openBabcock, Laura; Capizzi, Mariagrazia; Arbula, Sandra; Vallesi, AntoninoBabcock, Laura; Capizzi, Mariagrazia; Arbula, Sandra; Vallesi, Antonin

Bilingualism: Consequences for Mind and Brain

Building on earlier evidence showing a beneficial effect of bilingualism on children’s cognitive development, we review recent studies using both behavioral and neuroimaging methods to examine the effects of bilingualism on cognition in adulthood and explore possible mechanisms for these effects. This research shows that bilingualism has a somewhat muted effect in adulthood but a larger role in older age, protecting against cognitive decline, a concept known as “cognitive reserve”. We discuss recent evidence that bilingualism is associated with a delay in the onset of symptoms of dementia. Cognitive reserve is a crucial research area in the context of an aging population; the possibility that bilingualism contributes to cognitive reserve is therefore of growing importance as populations become increasingly diverse

Neural correlates underlying linguistic and non-linguistic switching tasks in high-proficient bilinguals. An ERP study

During language production in bilinguals, both languages are simultaneously activated, making the accurate control striking. To investigate whether the mechanisms that control language production in bilinguals are specific to language or subsidiary of a domain-general control mechanism, we looked at Event-Related Potentials while twenty high-proficient Spanish/Catalan participants switched among two languages, and among two tasks. The behavioral data suggests that the mechanism for control is independent of general control mechanisms; however, neuronal data interestingly suggests otherwise.S'ha comprovat que, quan els bilingües parlen, ambdues llengües estan actives, la qual cosa converteix el control acurat de la producció en un fet extraordinari. per investigar si els mecanismes de control de la producció del llenguatge en bilingües són específics del llenguatge o bé formen part d'un sistema de control general, hem analitzat Potencials Evocats en vint participants bilingües Català/Español mentre canviaven de llengua o de tasca. Els resultats a nivell conductual semblen indicar que el mecanisme de control del llenguatge és independent al sistema de control general; tanmateix, els resultats a nivell neuronal suggereixen l'escenari contrari

Graph theoretical analysis of functional network for comprehension of sign language

This work was supported by grants from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC: 31571158, 31170969) and National Key Basic Research Program of China (2014CB846102), and a grant from the National Institutes of Health (R01 DC010997). We thank Yong He and Roel Willems for providing insightful comments to this study and Amie Fairs for proofreading the manuscript. No conflict of interest is declared.Peer reviewedPostprin

Contextual Differences in the Effect of Interference During Language Switching in Korean-English Bilingual Speakers

Bilingual speakers are assumed to activate two languages during language comprehension and production even when the input or output is in only one language. The parallel activation of both languages may result in competition between languages (e.g., Costa et al., 2006, Kroll, Bobb, & Wodniecka, 2006, La Heij, 2005). Earlier studies examined how the two languages are processed and controlled by mitigating interference during language selection (e.g., Abutalebi & Green, 2008; Marian & Spivey, 2003; Poulisse, 1999). One way to study language control processes is to examine language-switching behaviors, a unique marker for these control processes (e.g., Bobb & Wodniecka, 2013). Although some earlier studies reported asymmetrical switch costs (i.e., larger switch cost from L2 to L1 than from L1 to L2), which were thought to reflect the role of inhibitory control in bilingual speech, more recent findings have been mixed, indicating that the nature of language control remains controversial (e.g., Calabria et al., 2012; Costa, Santesteban & Ivanova, 2006). Moreover, recent findings concerning bilingual language control imply that both language suppression and activation contribute to interference control during switching, leaving other potential control processes largely under-investigated (compared to the notion of inhibitory control; e.g., Christoffels et al., 2007). The current study aimed to understand how the control mechanism operates in specific switching contexts by (a) manipulating the degree of switch frequency, which stimulates a more or less competitive language switching context, and (b) contrasting language predominance, which signals a more L1 dominant versus L2 dominant switching context. Forty-four Korean-English bilinguals living in the United States performed a picture naming task in which the retrieval of words from each language varied according to the experimental manipulations. The data were analyzed to explore possible effects of switch-frequency and language predominance. The bilingual speakers exhibited an overall naming advantage for English in both baseline and experimental conditions, independent of individual language proficiency. Moreover, a clear effect of switch frequency was seen (less frequent switches resulted in a greater local switch cost) while there was no effect of language predominance (similar patterns of switch costs were reported in both conditions). Particular task demands associated with levels of competition via switch frequency modulated levels of interference, resulting in different degrees of local vs. global switch costs within bilingual individuals. In conclusion, the current findings suggest that the language environment (immersion context), as well as the experimental task conditions varying by switch frequency have an effect on the bilingual language control mechanism

AN INQUIRY INTO BILINGUAL LANGUAGE CONTROL

Ph.DDOCTOR OF PHILOSOPH

The neurocognitive fingerprint of simultaneous interpretation

The human brain is a dynamic organ which is molded throughout the lifespan by each individual\u2019s life experiences. Learning to juggle, speaking two languages, and playing the piano all number among experiences that leave an impression on the mind and brain. Little research, however, has examined one of the most demanding processes in human cognition, simultaneous interpretation (SI). In SI an individual must comprehend a stream of auditory material in one language and with a few seconds delay produce the same content in another language. This process, which is both a specialized form of bilingualism and a learned skill, similar to playing the piano, likely leaves its own distinct fingerprint on the mind and brain. The present work examines the neurocognition of professional and trainee simultaneous interpreters to better understand the process of simultaneous interpretation and the lasting impression it leaves. Bilingualism has been previously associated with advantages in cognitive control in both linguistic and non-linguistic domains. These benefits are posited to be due to bilinguals\u2019 extensive practice managing two languages. Simultaneous interpretation represents a process which requires a higher level of language management than most bilingual contexts. This increased experience may lead to quantitatively larger benefits in interpreters than in bilinguals. Additionally, interpreters may garner benefits which are unique to the interpreting experience, in particular the need to use two languages simultaneously. The first study addressed these possibilities in an examination of professional interpreters and matched multilinguals on three tasks of cognitive control. The two groups showed no differences on the color-word Stroop and Attention Network Test, tasks which have previously revealed an advantage for bilinguals. Results from a non-linguistic task-switching paradigm were mixed. Interpreters showed no additional advantage in switching costs, where bilingual benefits have previously been seen, but exhibited smaller mixing costs than the multilinguals. In comparison with previous literature, this benefit in mixing cost appears to be unique to simultaneous interpretation. Additionally, the interpreters had larger verbal and spatial memory spans than the multilinguals. The results suggest that professional interpreters do not have quantitatively larger bilingual benefits, but do possess benefits specific to experience with simultaneous interpretation As simultaneous interpretation is an acquired skill, these interpreter-specific advantages may have been gained through training in SI or represent innate differences that led individuals to the field. The second study examined students earning a Master in Conference Interpreting, and matched students in other disciplines, longitudinally to determine which cognitive abilities are innate and which are acquired through SI training. The results indicated improvements in verbal and spatial memory among the students of interpretation, but not among the students in other disciplines, suggesting that these abilities are acquired with training. An improvement in the mixing cost, however, was seen across the groups, leaving open the possibility of an influence of professional experience on this measure. Previous studies of skill acquisition have indicated that not only cognitive abilities, but also underlying brain structure is altered through the training period. To examine the effects of training in simultaneous interpretation on gray matter and white matter structure the above-mentioned groups additionally participated in neuroimaging sessions. Analysis of gray matter volume using voxel-based morphometry (VBM) revealed group differences in regions previously linked to spoken word learning, suggesting greater efficiency in these areas among students of interpretation. Additionally, changes in gray matter volume related to training in SI were evident in bilateral putamen and left superior temporal cortex, among other regions. Previous functional MRI studies of speech shadowing have found activation in these same regions, suggesting the changes may be related to the simultaneity of input and output during simultaneous interpretation. Moreover, analyses of diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) data revealed greater white matter integrity among the students of interpretation in tracts in the left hemisphere that underlie language. A subset of these tracts was further strengthened through training in SI. Finally, the mechanisms supporting the simultaneous use of two languages were considered, specifically addressing the possibility that interpreters apply less inhibition to the unused language. Students at various stages in their simultaneous interpretation training were tested on a three language switching paradigm. This paradigm affords a measure of inhibition of abandoned task sets through n-2 repetition costs. Though differences were found between the groups on n-2 repetition costs, these did not appear to be connected to SI training, but rather the predominant bilingual interactional context of the groups. Taken together these investigations begin to provide a picture of the effects that simultaneous interpretation has on cognitive abilities and brain structure. Specifically, interpreters appear to have a unique set of cognitive advantages that are related to the processes used during SI. Further, these advantages originate from a combination of innate and trained abilities