Measuring and maintaining performance in x-ray baggage inspection at security checkpoints: methodological and practical considerations

Inspecting X-ray images of passenger baggage for prohibited items at security checkpoints is crucial to ensuring aviation security. To prevent performance declines during inspection, the EU allows screeners to perform this task for only 20 min, although little is known about how this performance actually evolves over time. For many airports, longer screening durations would be practical, and this raises the question of the ideal screening duration in terms of both performance and screener well-being. To measure screeners’ performance, airports typically implement threat image projection (TIP). TIP projects fictional threat items (FTIs) onto the X-ray images of passenger baggage; and by recording the screeners’ decisions, it allows measurement of their detection rate. To draw meaningful conclusions from these data, it is essential for them to be reliable and valid.However, their reliability and validity are still poorly researched and not confirmed. This thesis addresses the question of how time on task affects performance in X-ray image inspection of cabin baggage, and it asks whether TIP performance data collected at airports provide a reliable and valid measure of operational threat detection. Manuscript 1 investigated how performance evolves with time on task in two groups of screeners who performed a 1-hr X-ray image inspection task in the laboratory. One group took 10-min breaks every 20 min; the other group screened continuously without breaks. To assess the validity of measurements of detection performance, we varied target prevalence. Results confirmed the typical target prevalence effect and showed that da is a valid measure of detection performance for X-ray images inspection. Manuscript 1 provides evidence that screeners were able to maintain performance for a full hour, and that breaks had no effect on performance. However, time on task caused a shift in response tendency and might cause more distress. In Manuscript 2, we investigated the effects of time on task on performance under real working conditions by analyzing performance data from a 4-month field study. A group of screeners at a European airport were asked to analyze X-ray images from a remote screening room for up to 60 min. Only when task load was high (number of images analyzed per min), did the screeners' hit rate decrease with time on task. The efficiency, in terms of the reject rate and processing time, increased with time on task. Screeners who conducted longer screening durations did not report more distress. Yet, there were marked individual differences in performance, in performed screening durations, and in preferred screening durations. In Manuscript 3, we examined the reliability and validity of TIP performance by analyzing a large data set from a European airport. We showed that TIP data can be a reliable and valid measure of operational threat detection, and that around 100 TIP events per screener should be considered to attain minimum reliability values of 0.7. The manuscript further provides recommendations on how to increase the reliability of TIP data.Taken together, these findings show that TIP data, which are in frequent use, can provide a reliable and valid measure of operational threat detection and that screeners can maintain performance for more than 20 min. Manuscripts 1 and 2 provide evidence that time on task in X-ray image inspection leads to a shift in response tendency rather than a decline in sensitivity. Based on performance and survey results, screening sessions could be designed more flexibly and an extension to 30–40 min could be considered. The manuscripts provide meaningful theoretical insights into performance in X-ray image inspection, especially with regard to the effect of time on task. They further provide methodological and practical contributions on appropriate detection performance measures, on how to measure performance reliably and validly, and on the design of screening durations

A multi-method approach towards identifying situational factors and their relevance for X-ray screening

Abstract-In the last decade, large investments have been made to improve airport security for safeguarding air transportation. X-ray screening of passenger bags is a key component of airport security procedures. State-of-the art X-ray screening systems provide high quality images, yet the decision whether a passenger bag has to be further investigated (e.g. using manual search) still relies on human operators (X-ray screeners). The primary work task of X-ray screeners is to visually inspect X-ray images of passenger bags for prohibited items and decide whether a bag is OK or not in a reasonable amount of time. It is well-known from scientific research that human performance depends on a variety of situational factors. Understanding which situational factors are relevant for X-ray screening at airports can provide important insights for increasing efficiency and effectiveness at airport security checkpoints. A multi-method job analysis was developed to identify situational factors which influence X-ray screeners' primary work task in cabin baggage screening (CBS) at a European airport. First, qualitative work observation was applied to identify situational factors. Then, interviews with experts were conducted to gain further insights on which situational factors could be relevant for X-ray screening by human operators. These methods provided the basis for a survey conducted with X-ray screeners in order to obtain ratings of how relevant situational factors are and how often they occur. A list of main situational factors that influence X-ray screeners' primary work task was elaborated throughout the process and summarized in a categorical system using impact and frequency. Factors of high impact and frequency were bag content depending on different kinds of materials; bag complexity and how bags and trays are packed and put on the conveyor belt. Factors of medium relevance were factors of the work environment (noise, light, air, temperature and quality of X-ray images), team specific factors (communication, time pressure and team atmosphere) and other factors affecting X-ray screening (operational processes of secondary bag search, loading of bags, passengers causing fuss and hassle). The reported results indicate the presence of several situational factors affecting X-ray screeners' primary work task

A Step toward Ending Long Airport Security Lines: The Modified Boarding Pass

Anyone who has traveled by air has most likely experienced long airport security lines. Yet not much is known about its cause because few have considered if passengers have created this problem for themselves. The present study attempts to fill this research gap by suggesting that when passengers are not well-prepared for security screening, they delay the process by making mistakes and not complying with procedures. This lack of preparedness can be attributed to several shortcomings of security signposts. This study proposes the use of a modified boarding pass as an alternative form of signage to help passengers better prepare for security screening. In a recall evaluation of the items to remove prior to security screening, the combination of the modified boarding pass and security signposts led to greater recall than when either stimuli were used alone. In an airport survey to gather public sentiment, three-quarters of the respondents saw value in the idea of the modified boarding pass. Although the majority of the respondents were receptive to it becoming an option for future travel, many also felt that the modified boarding pass would be more useful than security signposts or announcements at conveying helpful security screening information