The Neurocognitive Process of Digital Radicalization: A Theoretical Model and Analytical Framework

Recent studies suggest that empathy induced by narrative messages can effectively facilitate persuasion and reduce psychological reactance. Although limited, emerging research on the etiology of radical political behavior has begun to explore the role of narratives in shaping an individual’s beliefs, attitudes, and intentions that culminate in radicalization. The existing studies focus exclusively on the influence of narrative persuasion on an individual, but they overlook the necessity of empathy and that in the absence of empathy, persuasion is not salient. We argue that terrorist organizations are strategic in cultivating empathetic-persuasive messages using audiovisual materials, and disseminating their message within the digital medium. Therefore, in this paper we propose a theoretical model and analytical framework capable of helping us better understand the neurocognitive process of digital radicalization

There and Back Again: The Study of Mental Disorder and Terrorist Involvement

For the past forty years, researchers studied the relationship between mental disorder and terrorist involvement. The literature developed in four paradigms, each of which differs in terms of their empirical evidence, the specific mental disorders studied, and their conceptualizations of terrorist involvement. These paradigms have not, however, witnessed linear and incremental improvements upon one another. Although one paradigm has generally tended to dominate a temporal period, many false assumptions and incorrect interpretations of earlier work permeate into today’s discourse. This paper provides a history of the study of mental disorders and the terrorist. First, we briefly outline the core fundamental principles of the first two paradigms, The paper then outlines the core arguments produced by the seminal reviews conducted in paradigm three. We highlight how these findings were consistently misinterpreted in subsequent citations. We then highlight recent innovations in the study of terrorism and mental disorder since the various influential literature reviews of 1997-2005. We conclude by outlining how future research in this area may improve in the coming years by broadening our understanding of both terrorist involvement and psychopathology away from simple dichotomous thinking

Spatial Decision Making of Terrorist Target Selection: Introducing the TRACK Framework

Guided by previous research and recent empirical analyses, this paper gives insight into elements that characterize the spatial decision making of terrorist target selection. Five key factors explain why targets are chosen by terrorists. The authors propose that, generally, targets will be selected when they are Tolerable, Relevant, Accessible, Close and/or Known. This is followed by a discussion of attacks witnessed between January 2013 and December 2018 in the United Kingdom, and implications

How the War Was ‘One’: Countering violent extremism and the social dimensions of counter-terrorism in Canada.

The current global “war on terror” highlights a fundamental quandary for all liberal democracies seeking to counter the violent extremism of their own citizens while maintaining civic rights and freedoms. This challenge accompanies a transformation in international conflict from inter-state war and superpower rivalry, to homegrown terrorism, radicalization-to-violence, Internet propaganda, and targeting and recruitment of vulnerable persons. These new threats shift the battlefield, as traditionally defined, to the home front, as extremist violence is nurtured by and perpetrated within public spaces, such as schools, places of religious worship, civil society and the home. Today, violence emanates from within liberal democratic society and its extremist motivations bypass the very institutions that would otherwise support civic rights, freedoms and multiculturalism. As such, attempts to counter extremist violence must appeal to the political, social, cultural, religious and familial aspects of human behavior alongside a parallel shift in efforts to keep citizens safe within their own social spaces. In recent years, Canada has been introduced to home grown and lone individual terrorism with the cases of attack against armed forces personnel in Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu and Ottawa in 2014. This article identifies the social dimensions of counter-terrorism in the Canadian context, a propitious case by which to evaluate different approaches to countering violent extremism. Canadian initiatives - simultaneously proliferating and in their infancy – raise a host of questions about counter-terrorism in liberal democratic countries. For example, why do individuals radicalize-to-violence in rights-based and multicultural societies? How and when can the liberal democratic state best temper the radicalization process in ways that are effective and procedurally just? What state-society balance works best to counter radicalized viewpoints? Who are the appropriate stakeholders in mounting and monitoring counter radicalization programs? What risks accompany government engagement with communities against terrorist activity? And what are the appropriate measures of success? These questions lay the groundwork for an empirical analysis of prevalent programs in Canada against the background of the “war on terror”, multiculturalism, racial profiling, community policing and other contemporary Canadian values

Public Good Theory and the 'Added Value' of the EU's Counterterrorism Policy

This paper develops a deductive theoretical framework for assessing the EU's added value in the fight against terrorism. The first part argues that public good theory helps to conceptualize objectives of international counterterrorism cooperation and the respective role of international organizations. It critically evaluates existing discussions of security cooperation from this theoretical perspective and sets out a typology of policies according to three aggregation technologies (weaker links, summation, better shot), each of which is linked to a specific set of governance challenges. The second part surveys the EU's counterterrorism efforts on this basis. Weaker link issues - such as the protection of the movement of people, goods and capital - and the related problem of mutual assurance have been quite successfully addressed, even if there is increasing uncertainty over the boundaries of cooperation. In contrast, the EU fell short with regard to joint efforts in the fight against terrorism due to the non-excludable nature of benefits, as in the case of foreign policy, or (partial) rivalry of consumption, as in the case of intelligence sharing or disaster response capacities. Finally, the EU increasingly supports better shot initiatives to develop new instruments and technologies to combat terrorism, but is often overtaken by mini-lateral forms of cooperation.counterterrorism, public good theory, international organisations, European Union

Discussing Concepts of Terrorist Rationality: Implications for Counter-Terrorism Policy

Scholars of terrorism studies have long struggled to agree on a common understanding of what terrorism is. To date, they have agreed on little more than the fact that terrorism is difficult to define. As a consequence, more than 100, if not more than 200 modern definitions of terrorism have been formulated. Within those definitions, different aspects of terrorism are stressed including the underlying motivations, applied tactics and chosen targets. While no consensus has been found on how to define terrorism or terrorists, a meta-study by Schmid and Jongman (1988) provides fruitful insight into the most relevant aspects of definitions of terrorism which have proven valid to the present day. The two researchers analyzed various academic and official definitions of terrorism and identified three main elements as being vital to define terrorism; (1) the use (or threat) of violence1, (2) political objectives and (3) the intention of sowing fear in a target population as a means of achieving these political objectives.

The multifinality of vulnerability indicators in lone-actor terrorism

To move beyond current aggregate and static conclusions regarding radicalisation and subsequent terrorist behaviour, empirical research should look to criminological models which are influenced by the life-course perspective. Current UK government policy designed to prevent radicalisation and terrorist engagement look to outputs from criminological perspectives to inform policy and practice. However, the guidance suffers from a lack of specificity as to the major concept of ‘vulnerability to radicalisation’, and what this incorporates. This investigation uses sequential analyses to add to our understanding of ‘vulnerability’ in the specific context of lone-actor terrorism. The statistical method bridges the gap between qualitative and quantitative approaches and provides a series of empirical outputs which visualise typical lone-actor terrorist trajectories through the discrete stages of radicalisation, attack planning and attack commission

PROFIL LIČNOSTI BOMBAŠA SAMOUBOJICE

This paper provides an overview of relevant knowledge about a complex motivation mechanism in suicide terrorists, their preferences or membership in a particular social environment, and the selection criteria for committing a terrorist attack. This study will also define the conditions under which a terrorist group would use a suicide attack instead conventional tactics. It is known that terrorist organizations are able to use certain “social” and “psychological” methods as a means of propaganda and indoctrination in order to influence these individuals. Their attacks can also act as a signal of group’s determination and can additionally serve as an instrument for attracting new recruits and supporters. Understanding motives and ways of thinking of a suicide terrorist can be very complex. In order to gain a more comprehensive understanding, this analysis will cover the sphere of action and motives of terrorist leaders, which can result in additional opportunities to counter suicide-terrorism. The paper will analyze political and educational variables, as well as variables of family morality and religion compared to personal experiences that make the individual commit such acts of violence. An answer will be sought as to how much psychological understanding of persons involved in suicide attacks can help in its prevention.U radu se daje pregled relevantnih spoznaja o složenom motivacijskom mehanizmu kod terorista samoubojica, njihovim sklonostima ili pripadnosti određenom društvenom okruženju i kriterijima odabira za izvršavanje terorističkog napada. Također se definira pod kojim će uvjetima teroristička skupina radije koristiti samoubilački napad nasuprot konvencionalnim taktikama. Poznato je da su terorističke organizacije sposobne koristiti neke „socijalne” i „psihološke” metode kao sredstvo propagande i indoktrinacije u cilju utjecaja na ove pojedince. Njihovi napadi također mogu poslužiti kao znak određivanja skupine i mogu dodatno poslužiti kao instrument za privlačenje novih novaka i pristaša. Razumijevanje motiva i načina razmišljanja terorista samoubojice može biti vrlo složeno. Da bi se dobio sveobuhvatniji pogled, analiza treba obuhvatiti sferu djelovanja i motive terorističkih lidera, čime se mogu otvoriti dodatne mogućnosti da se suprotstavi samoubilačkom terorizmu. U radu se analiziraju varijable političkog i obrazovnog faktora, te obiteljskog morala i vjere u usporedbi s osobnim iskustvima onoga što pogađa pojedinca da izvrši takva djela nasilja. Traži se odgovor koliko psihološko razumijevanje osoba uključenih u samoubilačke napade može pomoći u prevenciji

Collaboration, Lone-wolfs and Returners – Framing Terrorism in Swedish Counter-Terrorism Policies

Whereas a lot of research on social problems has focused on understanding them as objective conditions, the purpose of this study is to examine how terrorism is framed in three Swedish policies for countering terrorism. The three Swedish policies for countering terrorism, included in this study, were published between 2008-2015, and are important platforms wherein the framing of terrorism as a social problem takes place. Drawing on Donileen R. Loseke’s perspective on social problems, I have examined the human activity of social problems work; this involves looking at how the parameters of the condition is set, and how meaning is created within three frames: the diagnostic, motivational, and prognostic frame. By analyzing processes of meaning-making, I have shed light on how claim-makers, in a process termed “piggybacking”, make the so-called “new” terrorism seem familiar (notwithstanding the prefix of “new”) by linking it to an already established problem, namely the “old” terrorism. It is argued that the narrative of terrorism encompasses elements of vagueness, the construction of identities, and a moral dimension, since it entails ideas pertaining to desirable and undesirable lifestyles. I have found that the inherent vagueness of the policies is not necessarily problematic. I, rather, suggest that vagueness – in a politically charged context as that of terrorism – may be viewed as an asset in that it enables complexity. Additionally, the watchword, collaboration, signifies a development, in which the responsibility for crime (terror) prevention and security are re-articulated. The notion of collaboration refers to the shared undertaking of terror prevention, involving both non-state and state actors. Within this multi-actor approach, which is closely linked to the prevention of “early initiatives”, structural accounts of terrorism are increasingly overshadowed by individually-orientated explanations. Furthermore, in light of the British academic literature on counter-terrorism, the study at hand also comprises reflections upon the potential pitfalls of the preventive outlook as to terrorism in Sweden.Den här uppsatsen handlar om hur terrorism framställs i tre svenska policydokument publicerade mellan 2008-15. Utgångspunkten är det samhällsvetenskapliga perspektivet socialkonstruktivism. Enligt detta perspektiv är verkligheten, eller delar därav, en produkt av interaktionen människor emellan. Företeelser som till exempel identitet, förstås således inte som naturliga eller förutbestämda, utan snarare som socialt skapade. I uppsatsen analyserar jag huvudsakligen hur terrorism som socialt problem konstrueras i tre nationella, svenska, counter-terrorismstrategier (som syftar till att bekämpa terrorism). Utöver denna frågeställning, har jag även undersökt om det finns några skillnader i hur terrorism framställs i de olika strategierna och vilka lösningar som föreslås i dessa samt hur den svenska preventiva hållningen gällande terrorism kan förstås i ljuset av akademisk, brittisk, counter-terrorismlitteratur. För att besvara den första frågeställningen använder jag mig av Donileen R. Losekes perspektiv på sociala problem. I skapandet av sociala problem, vilket Loseke refererar till som social problems work, finns å ena sidan de personer som via påståenden och uttalanden tillskriver ett fenomen mening och framställer det som viktigt (claim-makers), och å den andra de personer som dessa påståenden och uttalanden syftar till att övertyga, det vill säga allmänheten (the aduience). Loseke identifierar fyra inramningar genom vilka processer av meningsskapande belyses. I den första inramningen, grounds, redovisas fakta. I den andra, diagnostic frame, besvaras frågan: Vad är det som orsakar problemet? I den tredje, motivational frame, konstrueras problemet som viktigt och oroväckande via appeller till emotioner och logik. I den fjärde och avslutande inramningen ges förslag på tänkbara problemlösningar. Med hjälp av Losekes teoretiska ramverk har jag åskådliggjort hur terrorism framställs dels som en förgrening av ett redan etablerat socialt problem (”piggybacking”), dels som ett allvarligt och ständigt föränderligt hot. Jag har även påvisat hur identiteter konstrueras och jag har dessutom noterat vagheter i strategierna, samt reflekterat kring hur dessa vagheter kan förstås. Därutöver har jag även identifierat en utveckling varigenom ansvaret för brottsprevention (terrorprevention) förläggs till ”hela samhället”. Gällande förändringar strategierna emellan har jag utifrån Ingrid Sahlins tankar om brottsprevention kastat ljus över hur en mer generell prevention - i allt högre grad - kommit att ersättas av mer selektiv sådan. Likaså har samhälleliga, strukturella förklaringsmodeller hamnat allt mer i skymundan till förmån för mer individorienterade förklaringsmodeller. Mot bakgrund av den brittiska litteraturen om counter-terrorismens oroväckande implikationer har jag, i det svenska materialet, uppmärksammat liknande tendenser, till exempel normaliseringen av exceptionella åtgärder

A Cultural Topography of the Sovereign Citizens Movement: Are They a Terrorist Threat?

This thesis analyzes the Sovereign Citizens Movement—considered a domestic terrorist organization by the FBI— to determine if the label “terrorist organization” is appropriately applied, and then to assess the effectiveness of government protocols. The Sovereign Citizens Movement is a loose organization of individuals who adhere to an anti-government ideology. In most cases their actions are limited to fraudulent activity; however there have been individuals who resorted to violence in their engagements with government officials. This thesis concludes that the label “terrorist organization” does not describe the movement well, but that it is more likely that some individuals extrapolate the ideology and choose violence on their own, making them lone-wolf terrorists. Another conclusion of this thesis is that there needs to be a regular set of protocols established for all government agencies for interacting with Sovereigns. The method created by Rob Finch and Kory Flowers, which incorporates both law enforcement officials and legal professionals, provides the most effective way to interact with Sovereigns