Developmental Borderline Personality Disorder in Adolescence

Granični poremećaj ličnosti (BPD) sve se češće prepoznaje kao klinički relevantan poremećaj koji se može manifestirati već u adolescenciji. U novijoj literaturi ističe se i pojam razvojnog graničnog poremećaja ličnosti, koji se odnosi na adolescente s djelomično izraženim, ali stabilnim simptomima BPD-a. Takva stanja zahtijevaju pravovremeno prepoznavanje i liječenje kako bi se smanjio rizik od pogoršanja u odrasloj dobi. Cilj ovog rada bio je prikazati suvremene dijagnostičke pristupe i psihoterapijske metode koje se koriste u liječenju adolescenata s BPD-om. U analizu je uključeno 30 znanstvenih radova objavljenih u razdoblju od 2020. do 2025. godine, preuzetih iz baze PubMed. Radovi su tematski obrađeni kroz više cjelina: kliničku sliku, dijagnostiku, terapijske pristupe, komorbiditete, hospitalizaciju i evaluaciju terapijskih ishoda. Zaključno, rezultati rada ukazuju na izraženu potrebu za dostupnim, znanstveno utemeljenim i razvoju prilagođenim intervencijama koje uzimaju u obzir kompleksnost kliničke slike adolescentnog BPD-a i važnost rane detekcije simptoma.Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) is increasingly recognized as a clinically relevant condition that can manifest as early as adolescence. Recent literature also highlights the concept of developmental borderline personality disorder, referring to adolescents who present with partially expressed but stable symptoms of BPD. Such presentations require timely recognition and treatment to reduce the risk of progression in adulthood. The aim of this thesis was to present contemporary diagnostic approaches and psychotherapeutic methods used in the treatment of adolescents with BPD. The analysis included 30 scientific articles published between 2020 and 2025, retrieved from the PubMed database. The studies were thematically analyzed across several domains: clinical presentation, diagnostics, therapeutic approaches, comorbidities, hospitalization, and treatment outcomes. In conclusion, the findings point to a clear need for accessible, evidence-based, and developmentally sensitive interventions that account for the complexity of the clinical presentation in adolescent BPD and the importance of early symptom detection

Životinje u službi znanosti: nevidljivi junaci medicinskih otkrića : Noć knjige 2025. godine

Eksperimenti na životinjama dio su biomedicinskih istraživanja već tisućama godina. Zbog anatomskih i fizioloških sličnosti između ljudi i životinja, osobito sisavaca, određeni lijekovi, cjepiva i terapije najprije se ispituju na životinjskim modelima. Razumijevanje načina funkcioniranja ljudskog organizma i povezane spoznaje koje su dovele do iznimnog napretka medicinske prakse izravni su rezultat takvih istraživanja. Zanimljivo je istaknuti da se čak 188 od ukupno 225 Nobelovih nagrada za fiziologiju i medicinu temelji na rezultatima ostvarenim upravo na životinjskim modelima. Kako su se tijekom povijesti razvijala istraživanja na životinjama? U kojim područjima kliničke medicine ne bismo mogli napredovati bez takvih eksperimenata? Koje se životinje koriste, uzgajaju li se posebno za te svrhe? Kako je regulirano njihovo korištenje i pod kojim zakonskim okvirom? I na kraju – hoće li biomedicinska istraživanja u budućnosti biti moguća bez korištenja životinjskih modela? Na ova, kao i brojna druga pitanja pokušat će odgovoriti Središnja medicinska knjižnica Medicinskog fakulteta Sveučilišta u Zagrebu svojim programom „Životinje u službi znanosti: nevidljivi junaci medicinskih otkrića“. Osim u sklopu Noći knjige 23. travnja, programom će se simbolično obilježiti i Svjetski dan eksperimentalnih životinja, 24. travnja, kojim se nastoji podići svijest o eksperimentiranju na životinjama

Diagnostic and epidemiological landscape of anaerobic bacteria in Europe, 2020–2023 (ANAEuROBE)

Introduction: Despite being implicated in a wide spectrum of community- and healthcare-acquired infections, anaerobes have not yet been incorporated into systematic surveillance programs in Europe. Methods: We conducted a multicentre retrospective observational study analysing all anaerobic strains isolated from blood cultures in 44 European Hospital Centres over a 4-y period (2020-2023). Diagnostic approach, epidemiology, and antimicrobial susceptibility according to EUCAST v. 15.0 were investigated. Results: Our study included 14,527 anaerobes, most of which were Gram-positive (45%) or Gram-negative (40%) bacilli. MALDI-TOF coupled to mass spectrometry was the most widely used tool for species identification (98%). Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed in the vast majority of centres, using mostly gradient diffusion strip (77%) and disk diffusion (45%) methods according to EUCAST guidelines. The most prevalent species were Cutibacterium acnes (18.7%), Bacteroides fragilis (16.3%), Clostridium perfringens (5.3%), Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron (4.2%), Fusobacterium nucleatum (3.5%), and Parvimonas micra (3.4%). C. acnes showed high resistance to benzylpenicillin (18%), clindamycin (39%), and imipenem (19% and 13% by MIC methods and disk diffusion, respectively). B. fragilis showed high resistance to amoxicillin/clavulanate (24%), piperacillin/tazobactam (22% and 14% by MIC methods and disk diffusion, respectively), clindamycin (22% by both MIC methods and disk diffusion), meropenem (13%), and metronidazole (10%, only by disk diffusion). A similar resistance pattern was observed in B. thetaiotaomicron, Bacteroides ovatus, and Parabacteroides distasonis. C. perfringens showed high resistance to clindamycin (69% and 45% by MIC methods and disk diffusion, respectively), while benzylpenicillin and metronidazole maintained over 90% activity. F. nucleatum showed high resistance to benzylpenicillin (11%), while Fusobacterium necrophorum showed alarming rates of resistance to clindamycin (12%), meropenem (16%) and metronidazole (11%). Conclusions: This study presented an up-to-date analysis of the diagnostics and epidemiology of anaerobic bacteria in Europe, providing insights for future comparative analyses and the development of antimicrobial diagnostic and management strategies, as well as the optimization of current antibiotic treatments

Concentration of zinc, albumin, C reactive protein and interleukin 6 in the serum of patients with major depressive disorder and depressive episode of bipolar disorder

Cilj ovog istraživanja bio je istražiti serumske razine interleukina 6 (IL-6), C reaktivnog proteina (CRP), albumina i cinka u bolesnika sa unipolarnom depresijom (UD) i bipolarnom depresijom (BD). Prikupljen je ukupno 131 uzorak bolesnika (65 UD i 66 BD). Za procjenu depresivnih simptoma korištene su Montgomery-Åsbergova ljestvica za depresiju (MADRS), Hamiltonova ljestvica za depresiju (HAMD-17). Provedeno istraživanje u kojem su analizirane serumske razine IL-6, CRP-a, albumina i cinka je presječno. Koncentracija CRP-a određena je metodom imunoturbidimetrije, cinka kolorimetrijskom metodom, a albumina kolorimetrijskom metodom s bromokrezol zelenom na uređaju Alinity c. Koncentracija citokina IL-6 u serumskim uzorcima određena je komercijalnim testom enzimskog imunoeseja, ELISA. Nismo pronašli značajne razlike u serumskim koncentracijama cinka, albumina, CRP-a i IL-6 između skupina bolesnika sa unipolarnom i bipolarnom depresijom. Osim toga, promatrane su korelacije s određenim česticama na HAMD-17; (konkretno hipohondrija, rad i aktivnosti, somatski simptomi-općenito, gubitak težine) i na MADRS-u (poteškoće koncentracije, umor) u obje istraživane skupine bolesnika. Dobiveni rezultati potvrđuju prisutnost upale niskog stupnja u depresiji, što govori u prilog upalnoj hipotezi u etiologiji poremećaja raspoloženja. Naši rezultati ne nalaze potencijalne biološke markere koji bi mogli pomoći u diferencijalnoj dijagnostici između unipolarne i bipolarne depresije.Unipolar (UD) and bipolar depression (BD) show a high degree of similarity in clinical presentations, which complicates the differential diagnosis of these disorders. The aim of this study was to investigate serum levels of interleukin 6 (IL-6), C reactive protein (CRP), albumin and zinc in patients with unipolar depression (UD) and bipolar depression (BD). A total of 131 patient samples (65 UD and 66 BD) were collected. Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) along with Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAMD-17) were administered to patient groups to evaluate symptoms. A cross-sectional study was performed to analyse serum levels of IL-6, CRP, albumin, and zinc. The concentration of CRP was determined by the immunoturbidimetry method, zinc by the colorimetric method and albumin by the colorimetric method with bromocresol green on the Alinity c device. IL-6 cytokine concentration in serum samples was ascertained using a commercial enzyme immunoassay, ELISA. We found no significant differences in serum concentrations of zinc, albumin, CRP and IL-6 between the groups of patients with unipolar and bipolar depression. Furthermore, correlations with specific items on HAMD-17; (namely hypochondrias, work and activities, somatic symptoms-general, weight loss) and on MADRS (concentration difficulties, lassitude) were observed in both patient groups. These findings confirm the presence of low-grade inflammation in depression, thus adding better insight into the inflammation hypothesis directed to explain aetiology of depressive disorders. Our results don’t indicate potential biomarkers for distinguishing between unipolar and bipolar depression

Uterine niche as a postoperative sequela of cesarean section

Učestalost carskih rezova posljednjih se desetljeća značajno povećala, što dovodi do sve više dugoročnih postoperativnih komplikacija, među kojima je maternična niša jedna od važnijih. Maternična niša je defekt miometrija dubine ≥2 mm na ožiljku nakon carskog reza, s prevalencijom od 24–70\%, ovisno o dijagnostičkoj metodi. Cilj ovog preglednog rada je prikazati patofiziologiju nastanka maternične niše, mogućnosti dijagnostike, kliničke manifestacije te opcije liječenja, uz poseban osvrt na utjecaj niše na plodnost i ishode budućih trudnoća. Pregled literature pokazuje da nastanak niše uzrokuje neadekvatno cijeljenje maternice (npr. jednoslojno šivanje bez rekonstrukcije endometrija) u kombinaciji s određenim anatomskim čimbenicima i kroničnom upalom. Transvaginalni ultrazvuk je metoda izbora za detekciju niše, dok sonohisterografija (SIS), kontrastno pojačani ultrazvuk i magnetska rezonancija dodatno povećavaju preciznost dijagnoze. Histeroskopija ima ograničenu dijagnostičku vrijednost, ali je važna jer može imati ulogu u liječenju. Još ne postoje jedinstvena klasifikacija ni “zlatni standard” dijagnostike maternične niše. Prema trenutnoj literaturi, niša se najčešće očituje postmenstrualnim točkastim krvarenjem, a može uzrokovati i dismenoreju, kroničnu zdjeličnu bol te dispareuniju. Čini se da veličina defekta korelira s intenzitetom postmenstrualnog krvarenja. Također, misli se da maternična niša može dovesti do sekundarne neplodnosti – zadržavanje krvi u defektu i kronični endometritis mogu narušiti implantaciju embrija i receptivnost endometrija. Prisutnost niše povećava rizik abnormalne implantacije trudnoće (trudnoća u ožiljku, placenta previa, placenta accreta) te rupture maternice u sljedećim trudnoćama. Liječenje ovisi o težini simptoma i reprodukcijskim planovima. Levonorgestrelski intrauterini uložak učinkovit je u smanjenju postmenstrualnog krvarenja kod žena koje više ne planiraju trudnoću. Kod težih simptoma ili planiranja daljnje trudnoće indicirana je kirurška korekcija defekta – histeroskopskom resekcijom manjih niša ili laparoskopskom ekscizijom i rekonstrukcijom većih niša. Obje metode ublažavaju simptome i mogu omogućiti ostvarenje trudnoće, no optimalna terapija nije utvrđena zbog ograničenih dokaza. Terapijski pristup potrebno je individualizirati uz nastavak istraživanja i standardizaciju dijagnostičkih kriterija radi poboljšanja ishoda.In recent decades, the frequency of Cesarean sections has increased significantly, leading to more long-term postoperative complications, including the uterine niche. A uterine niche (Caesarean scar defect) is a myometrial defect ≥2 mm at the site of a prior Caesarean scar, with a prevalence of 24–70\% depending on the detection method. This review aims to present the pathophysiology of uterine niche formation, diagnostic modalities, clinical manifestations, and treatment options, focusing on its impact on fertility and future pregnancies. Recent literature indicates that niche formation results from inadequate uterine wound healing combined with certain anatomical factors and chronic inflammation. Transvaginal ultrasound is the first-line diagnostic method, while saline infusion sonography, contrast-enhanced ultrasound, and MRI can improve detection accuracy; hysteroscopy is mainly used for planning surgical treatment. No universal classification or “gold standard” for uterine niche diagnosis has been established. A uterine niche often presents with prolonged postmenstrual spotting and may also cause dysmenorrhea, chronic pelvic pain, or dyspareunia. It seemms that the defect size correlates with the severity of postmenstrual bleeding. A niche can possibly lead to secondary infertility, as retained blood and chronic endometritis in the defect impair embryo implantation and endometrial receptivity. A niche also increases the risk of abnormal placentation in subsequent pregnancies (e.g. Cesarean scar ectopic pregnancy, placenta previa/accreta) as well as uterine rupture. Management depends on symptom severity and reproductive plans. A levonorgestrel intrauterine device effectively reduces postmenstrual bleeding in women not planning further pregnancies. Severe symptoms or desire for future childbearing warrant surgical correction of the defect – either hysteroscopic resection for smaller niches or laparoscopic excision with uterine reconstruction for larger defects. Both approaches alleviate symptoms and can enable future pregnancy, but no optimal treatment is established due to limited evidence. Management should be individualized, and further research with standardized diagnostic criteria is needed to improve outcomes

The Impact of Blood Transfusion on Postoperative Inflammatory Marker Elevation and Empirical Antibiotic Therapy Following Aortic Valve Replacement

Cilj ovog rada bio je usporediti vrijednosti upalnih parametara i učestalost empirijske primjene antibiotika između skupine transfundiranih i netransfundiranih bolesnika nakon zamjene aortnog zaliska. Provedeno je retrospektivno opservacijsko kohortno istraživanje u kojem je proučavana populacija bolesnika podvrgnutih zamjeni aortnog zaliska u periodu od veljače 2023. do siječnja 2025. godine na Zavodu za kardijalnu i transplantacijsku kirurgiju Kliničke bolnice Dubrava. Istraživanje je obuhvatilo 167 pacijenata od kojih je 102 (61,1%) transfundirano i 65 (38,9%) netransfundirano. Nakon statističke obrade podataka pronađene su značajne razlike u kategorijama dobi, spola, bubrežne i srčane funkcije te hitnosti i trajanja operacije. Skupina koja je primila transfuziju krvi bila je statistički značajno starija (p = 0,001), uočen je veći broj žena (p < 0,001) te su zabilježene niže vrijednosti predoperativnog hemoglobina (p < 0,001), hematokrita (p < 0,001) i eGFR-a (p < 0,001). Transfundirani pacijenti imali su bolju predoperativnu ejekcijsku frakciju (p = 0,044), veći broj elektivnih operacija (p = 0,004), kraće trajanje ekstrakorporalne cirkulacije (p < 0,001) te aortalne kleme (p = 0,001). Rezultati ostalih uspoređivanih varijabli nisu pokazali statistički značajnu razliku. Nije utvrđena statistički značajna razlika vrijednosti upalnih parametara i učestalosti empirijske primjene antibiotika između skupine transfundiranih i netransfundiranih. Razlike u skupinama nije bilo ni u učestalosti postoperativnih infekcija – najčešća infekcija koju su pacijenti razvili bila je urinarna (16,7% vs. 16,4%, p = 0,958), dok su ostali tipovi infekcija bili rijetki i bez statističkog značaja.The aim of this study was to compare the levels of inflammatory markers and the incidence of empirical antibiotic use between transfused and non-transfused patients following aortic valve replacement surgery. A retrospective observational cohort study was conducted, analyzing a population of patients who underwent aortic valve replacement between February 2023 and January 2025 at the Department of Cardiac and Transplant Surgery, Dubrava Clinical Hospital. The study included 167 patients, of whom 102 (61.1%) were transfused and 65 (38.9%) were not. After statistical analysis, significant differences were found in age, sex, renal and cardiac function, as well as in the urgency and duration of the operation. The group that received blood transfusions was significantly older (p = 0.001), had a higher proportion of female patients (p < 0.001), and showed lower preoperative hemoglobin (p < 0.001), hematocrit (p < 0.001), and eGFR values (p < 0.001). Transfused patients had better preoperative ejection fraction (p = 0.044), a higher number of elective surgeries (p = 0.004), and shorter durations of extracorporeal circulation (p < 0.001) and aortic clamping (p = 0.001). The results of other compared variables did not show statistically significant differences. No statistically significant differences were found in the levels of inflammatory markers or the frequency of empirical antibiotic use between the transfused and non-transfused groups. There was also no difference in the incidence of postoperative infections—the most common infection was urinary infection (16.7% vs. 16.4%, p = 0.958), while other types were rare and not statistically significant

Diabetic kidney disease

Dijabetička bolest bubrega vodeći je uzrok završnog stadija kronične bubrežne bolesti i jedan od glavnih čimbenika morbiditeta i mortaliteta među osobama sa šećernom bolešću. Patogeneza uključuje kombinirano djelovanje dugotrajne hiperglikemije, oksidativnog stresa, hemodinamskih poremećaja, kronične upale te epigenetskih promjena koje potiču fibrozu i gubitak funkcionalnih nefrona. Novija istraživanja ukazuju i na važnu ulogu lipotoksičnosti, osobito nakupljanja lizofosfatidilkolina u bubrežnim stanicama, što pridonosi oštećenju tubula i progresiji bolesti. Iako se bolest tradicionalno smatrala isključivo mikrovaskularnom komplikacijom, danas se sve više promatra kao heterogeni sindrom s izraženom glomerularnom, tubulointersticijskom i vaskularnom komponentom. Dijagnoza se postavlja temeljem kliničkih parametara, najčešće na temelju prisutnosti patološke albuminurije i/ili snižene procijenjene brzine glomerularne filtracije, uz isključenje drugih uzroka bubrežne bolesti. Međutim, sve je više bolesnika s neproteinuričnim fenotipom bolesti, osobito među starijim osobama i bolesnicima s tipom 2 šećerne bolesti, što zahtijeva dodatne dijagnostičke pristupe. Biopsija bubrega može biti ključna u diferencijalnoj dijagnozi kod atipične kliničke slike, ali se ne provodi rutinski zbog invazivnosti postupka. Terapija dijabetičke bolesti bubrega usmjerena je na usporavanje progresije oštećenja i smanjenje kardiovaskularnog rizika. Uz kontrolu glikemije, arterijskog tlaka i lipida, sve veću ulogu imaju novije terapije, uključujući inhibitore natrij-glukoza kotransportera tipa 2 i nesteroidne antagoniste mineralokortikoidnih receptora. Unatoč terapijskim naprecima, značajan broj bolesnika napreduje prema završnom stadiju bubrežne bolesti koji zahtijeva nadomjesnu bubrežnu terapiju, poput dijalize ili transplantacije. Zbog izrazite heterogenosti kliničkih oblika, nepredvidive progresije i ograničenih terapijskih opcija, dijabetička bolest bubrega ostaje velik izazov moderne medicine. Potrebno je razvijati nove biomarkere za rano otkrivanje bolesti i individualizirati terapijske pristupe utemeljene na molekularnim i genetskim obilježjima bolesnika.Diabetic kidney disease is the leading cause of end-stage chronic kidney disease and a major contributor to morbidity and mortality among individuals with diabetes mellitus. Its pathogenesis involves the combined effects of prolonged hyperglycemia, oxidative stress, hemodynamic disturbances, chronic inflammation and epigenetic modifications that promote fibrosis and nephron loss. Recent studies have highlighted the important role of lipotoxicity, particularly the accumulation of lysophosphatidylcholine in renal cells, which contributes to tubular injury and disease progression. Although traditionally considered a purely microvascular complication, diabetic kidney disease is increasingly recognized as a heterogeneous syndrome with significant glomerular, tubulointerstitial, and vascular involvement. Diagnosis is based on clinical parameters, most commonly the presence of pathological albuminuria and/or a reduced estimated glomerular filtration rate, after exclusion of other causes of kidney disease. However, an increasing number of patients present with a non-proteinuric phenotype, especially among older adults and individuals with type 2 diabetes, requiring broader diagnostic strategies. Kidney biopsy can be essential for differential diagnosis in atypical cases, though its use is limited due to its invasive nature. Treatment of diabetic kidney disease aims to slow the progression of renal impairment and reduce cardiovascular risk. In addition to controlling blood glucose, blood pressure, and lipid levels, newer therapies are gaining prominence, including sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 inhibitors and non-steroidal mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists. Despite therapeutic advancements, a significant proportion of patients continue to progress to end-stage renal disease requiring renal replacement therapy such as dialysis or kidney transplantation. Due to the pronounced heterogeneity of clinical presentations, unpredictable progression, and limited therapeutic options, diabetic kidney disease remains a major challenge in modern medicine. There is a critical need for the development of novel biomarkers for early detection and the implementation of individualized treatment strategies based on the molecular and genetic characteristics of each patient

Targeted therapy in metastatic melanoma

Melanom je prema učestalosti među rjeđim, a po malignosti jedan od najagresivnijih tumora kože. Iako je uzrok nastanka melanoma kože multifaktorijalan, najvažnijim etiološkim čimbenikom u razvoju bolesti smatra se izloženost UV zračenju. U razvijenim državama došlo je do velikog porasta u incidenciji melanoma, zbog čega su pokrenute mnoge javnozdravstvene kampanje prevencije i ranog otkrivanja, obzirom da je ključni čimbenik za smanjenje mortaliteta upravo rano otkrivanje. Melanom se klinički prezentira kao pigmentirana lezija koja se vremenom mijenja te se dijagnosticira kliničkim pregledom ili dermatoskopijom. Svaku sumnjivu leziju potrebno je kirurški odstraniti te poslati na patohistološku analizu. Nakon što se potvrdi dijagnoza melanoma, potrebno je odrediti stadij bolesti koristeći TNM klasifikaciju koja kategorizira obilježja primarnog tumora (T), zahvaćenost limfnih čvorova (N) i prisutnost udaljenih metastaza (M). Prema TNM klasifikaciji tumore dijelimo u stadije pri čemu je stadij 0 tumor in situ, stadij I i II podrazumijevaju lokaliziranu bolest, stadij III bolest koja zahvaća regionalne limfne čvorove, a stadij IV postojanje udaljenih metastaza. Ovisno o samom stadiju, određuje se liječenje. Prognoza bolesti je lošija što je viši stadij. Napretkom medicine došlo je do razvitka novih terapijskih opcija, imunoterapije (inhibitora kontrolnih točaka imunološkog sustava) i ciljane terapije (BRAF i MEK inhibitora). Nove terapijske opcije rezultirale su boljim preživljenjem pacijenata, posebice u kasnijim stadijima bolesti.Melanoma is one of the rarest skin tumors in terms of frequency and one of the most aggressive in terms of malignancy. Although the cause of skin melanoma is multifactorial, exposure to UV radiation is considered to be the most important etiological factor in the development of the disease. In developed countries, there has been a significant increase in the incidence of melanoma, which is why many public health campaigns for prevention and early detection have been launched, since early detection is the key factor in reducing mortality. Melanoma is clinically presented as a pigmented lesion that changes over time and is diagnosed by clinical examination or dermatoscopy. Any suspicious lesion should be surgically removed and sent for pathohistological analysis. Once the diagnosis of melanoma is confirmed, it is necessary to determine the stage of the disease using the TNM classification, which categorizes the characteristics of the primary tumor (T), lymph node involvement (N) and the presence of distant metastases (M). According to the TNM classification, tumors are divided into stages, with stage 0 being a tumor in situ, stages I and II implying localized disease, stage III disease affecting regional lymph nodes, and stage IV the presence of distant metastases. Treatment is determined depending on the stage itself. The prognosis of the disease is worse the higher the stage. Advances in medicine have led to the development of new therapeutic options, immunotherapy (immune system checkpoint inhibitors) and targeted therapy (BRAF and MEK inhibitors). New therapeutic options have resulted in better patient survival, especially in the later stages of the disease

Integrating artificial intelligence in clinical pharmacology: Opportunities, challenges and ethical imperatives

Ovaj rad opisuje transformacijski potencijal umjetne inteligencije (AI) u području kliničke farmakologije, s naglaskom na mogućnosti, izazove i etičke implikacije njezine integracije. AI tehnologije, uključujući strojno učenje (ML), duboko učenje (DL) i strojnu obradu jezika (NLP), značajno mijenjaju način otkrivanja lijekova, optimizacije kliničkih ispitivanja te personalizacije terapije. Prikazani su primjeri uspješne primjene AI u identifikaciji novih terapijskih ciljeva, prenamjeni indikacije lijekova, dizajnu nanonosača i optimizaciji kliničkih protokola. Također se razmatraju izazovi poput ograničene mogućnosti generalizacije rezultata, netransparentnih algoritama, rizika od algoritamske pristranosti te problema privatnosti podataka. Autori upozoravaju na etičke prijetnje, uključujući mogućnost zlouporabe AI za razvoj biološkog oružja, i naglašavaju potrebu za čvrstim regulatornim okvirom i edukacijom zdravstvenih djelatnika o odgovornoj primjeni AI. Zaključno, AI ima potencijal značajno unaprijediti kliničku farmakologiju, no za njezinu sigurnu i učinkovitu integraciju potrebni su multidisciplinarna suradnja, transparentnost i kontinuirana evaluacija njezine primjene u kliničkoj praksi.The transformative potential of artificial intelligence (AI) in the field of clinical pharmacology is explored, with a focus on its opportunities, challenges, and ethical implications. AI technologies, including machine learning (ML), deep learning (DL), and natural language processing (NLP), are significantly reshaping drug discovery, clinical trial optimization, and personalized therapy. Examples of successful AI applications are presented, such as the identification of novel therapeutic targets, drug repurposing, nanocarrier design, and the optimization of clinical protocols. The discussion also addresses challenges such as limited generalizability of results, algorithmic opacity, risks of algorithmic bias, and data privacy concerns. The authors highlight ethical threats, including the potential misuse of AI in the development of biological weapons, and emphasize the need for a robust regulatory framework and the education of healthcare professionals on the responsible use of AI. In conclusion, while AI holds significant promise for advancing clinical pharmacology, its safe and effective integration requires multidisciplinary collaboration, transparency, and continuous evaluation of its application in clinical practice