OBJECTIVE: Internal "anorexic voices" are commonly described by individuals with eating disorders. This study examines whether the perceived power and nature of that voice are related to eating pathology in anorexia nervosa. METHOD: Sixty-three women and one man with an ICD-10 diagnosis of anorexia nervosa participated in this study (mean age = 27.3 years; mean BMI = 16.0). Participants completed questionnaires measuring severity of eating pathology, perceived voice power, and beliefs about voices, either at the start or during treatment. RESULTS: A more powerful anorexic voice was associated with more negative eating attitudes in this clinical group. However, BMI was related to a moderating effect, with the interaction of greater voice power and malevolence being associated with a lower BMI. DISCUSSION: These findings suggest the anorexic voice may function as a maintenance factor in anorexia nervosa. Cognitive models of hearing voices may be applicable to disorders other than psychosis. Further explorations are warranted. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. (Int J Eat Disord 2016)

Birchwood

Chadwick

Corstens

Dolhanty

Fairburn

Gilbert

Higbed

Maisel

Mawson

Mond

Mountford

Noordenbos

Pugh

Schaefer

Serpell

Tierney

Trower

Williams

World Health Organisation.

Pugh, M.

Waller, G.

White Rose Research Online

This is a repository copy of The anorexic voice and severity of eating pathology in anorexia nervosa..White Rose Research Online URL for this paper:http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/95295/Version: Accepted VersionArticle:Pugh, M. and Waller, G. (2016) The anorexic voice and severity of eating pathology in anorexia nervosa. International Journal of Eating Disorders . ISSN 0276-3478 https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.22499This is the peer reviewed version of the following article: Pugh, Matthew, and Glenn Waller."The anorexic voice and severity of eating pathology in anorexia nervosa." International Journal of Eating Disorders (2016)., which has been published in final form at https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/eat.22499. This article may be used for non-commercial purposes in accordance with Wiley Terms and Conditions for Self-Archiving (http://olabout.wiley.com/WileyCDA/Section/id-820227.html).eprints@whiterose.ac.ukhttps://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/Reuse Unless indicated otherwise, fulltext items are protected by copyright with all rights reserved. The copyright exception in section 29 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 allows the making of a single copy solely for the purpose of non-commercial research or private study within the limits of fair dealing. The publisher or other rights-holder may allow further reproduction and re-use of this version - refer to the White Rose Research Online record for this item. Where records identify the publisher as the copyright holder, users can verify any specific terms of use on the publisher’s website. Takedown If you consider content in White Rose Research Online to be in breach of UK law, please notify us by emailing eprints@whiterose.ac.uk including the URL of the record and the reason for the withdrawal request.  THE ANOREXIC VOICE       1      The anorexic voice and severity of eating pathology in anorexia nervosa    Matthew Pugh, DClinPsy (1) Glenn Waller, DPhil (2)   1. Vincent Square Eating Disorders Service, London, UK 2. Department of Psychology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK   Corresponding author: Matthew Pugh, Vincent Square Eating Disorders Service, 1 Nightingale Place, London SW10 9NG, UK; telephone: +44 203 315 2104; email: matthewpugh@nhs.net.  Word count for paper (excluding references, title page and abstract): 1498 Word count for Abstract: 150   Running head: THE ANOREXIC VOICE    THE ANOREXIC VOICE       2  The anorexic voice and severity of eating pathology in anorexia nervosa   Abstract Objective: Internal ‘anorexic voices’ are commonly described by individuals with eating disorders. This study examines whether the perceived power and nature of that voice are related to eating pathology in anorexia nervosa.  Method: Sixty-three women and one man with an ICD-10 diagnosis of anorexia nervosa participated in this study (mean age = 27.3 years; mean BMI = 16.0). Participants completed questionnaires measuring severity of eating pathology, perceived voice power, and beliefs about voices, either at the start or during treatment.  Results: 3.5 A more powerful anorexic voice was associated with more negative eating attitudes in this clinical group. However, BMI was related to a moderating effect, with the interaction of greater voice power and malevolence being associated with a lower BMI. Discussion: These findings suggest the anorexic voice may function as a maintenance factor in anorexia nervosa. Cognitive models of hearing voices may be applicable to disorders other than psychosis. Further explorations are warranted.   Keywords Anorexia nervosa; anorexic voice; beliefs about voices; eating disorders    THE ANOREXIC VOICE       3  The anorexic voice and severity of eating pathology in anorexia nervosa  The literature on anorexia nervosa contains references to the ‘anorexic voice’. Case material indicates that, in contrast to eating disorder cognitions, the anorexic voice is usually experienced as a second or third person commentary on actions and consequences relating to eating, weight and shape (1-2). It is experienced as distinct from the self and self-criticism (3). It is usually recognised as internally generated rather than alien, distinguishing it from ‘true’ auditory hallucinations. Patients describe the anorexic voice as supportive in the early stages of illness (2), but becoming more controlling and hostile over time (4). They report feeling enmeshed and trapped by the voice, with efforts to resist it resulting in increased attacking (5). Thus, the patient can become more resistant to change. Interventions for the anorexic voice (6-9) address cognitive and relational aspects (e.g., power imbalances; boundary setting; challenging maladaptive appraisals). The link between the anorexic voice and eating pathology might best be understood using cognitive models of psychotic phenomena (10). Those models stress the importance of the power and nature of the voice. Voices that are perceived as more powerful than the self are associated with distress and depression, though that effect is moderated by the voice’s nature – particularly its benevolence or malevolence (11-12).  The aim of this study is to determine the relationship between the anorexic voice and the severity of symptoms among anorexia nervosa patients. Given the literature on psychotic voices, it can be hypothesised that an anorexic voice that is perceived as more powerful than the self will be associated with more severe anorexic symptoms, but that the benevolent or malevolent nature of that voice will moderate that association.  Method Participants The project received approval from a National Health Service Research Ethics Committee. Participants were recruited from a publically-funded eating disorders service in the UK, either before or during treatment. Each met ICD-10 criteria for anorexia nervosa,  THE ANOREXIC VOICE       4  following diagnostic clinical interview and multidisciplinary discussion (13). There were a total of 64 participants (63 women). Most were Caucasian (76.6%). Their mean age was 27.3 years (SD = 10.1, range = 18-70). The mean duration of their anorexia nervosa was 7.3 years (SD = 6.2, range = 0.3-29). Forty-six had restrictive anorexia, and 18 had binge/purge anorexia.  Measures Diagnosis and objective weight and height were provided by the clinician. Participants completed the following three self-report measures.  Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q, version 6; 14). The EDE-Q is a 28-item self-report measure addressing eating disorder cognitions and behaviors. It has acceptable psychometric properties (15). For the current study, only the global attitudinal score was used. 3.2 The internal consistency of the EDE-Q global score in this study was strong (Cronbach’s alpha = .911). Voice Power Differential Scale (VPDS - 11). The VPDS is a seven-item self-report questionnaire, which measures the perceived power and dominance of voices relative to the self. Items are rated on a five-point bipolar scale (e.g., “I am much more powerful than my voice” through to “my voice is much more powerful than me”). Total scores range from 0-28, with higher scores indicating greater voice power. The measure was adapted for the current purposes by replacing ‘voices’ with ‘anorexic voice/thoughts’. The original VPDS has high internal consistency (11). Beliefs about Voices Questionnaire – Revised (BAVQ-R - 16). The BAVQ-R is a 35-item self-report questionnaire, which measures beliefs about voices and response to them (engagement and resistance). The six-item benevolence subscale measures beliefs that voices are helpful, while the six-item malevolence subscale reflects beliefs that voices are persecutory. Higher scores indicate greater perceived malevolence and benevolence. The BAVQ-R was adapted for this study by changing the term ‘voices’ to ‘anorexic voice’. The original BAVQ-R has high test-retest reliability (16), and high internal consistency in previous anorexic voice research (3). 3.3 To justify considering both scales in the subsequent  THE ANOREXIC VOICE       5  analyses, it is necessary to demonstrate that benevolence and malevolence are distinct constructs (rather than simply being opposite ends of a single spectrum). In this study, the correlation between the BAVQ-R malevolence and benevolence scales was negative but small and non-significant (Pearson’s r = -.268, P > .05), confirming that they are sufficiently independent constructs. Data analysis  Voice power (VPDS) was the independent variable. Different aspects of the nature of the voice (BAVQ-R) were used as moderators, and measures of eating pathology (EDE-Q scores; BMI) were the dependent variables. The measures were all sufficiently normally distributed to allow for parametric analyses (Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests; P > .12 in all cases). Cronbach’s alpha was used to determine the internal consistency of the VPDS and the two BAVQ-R scales, as each was modified slightly for this study. Moderator analysis (16) was used to determine the moderating effect of the nature of the anorexic voice (BAVQ-R malevolence and benevolence) on the relationship between the power of the voice (VPDS score) and the measures of eating pathology. This effect was tested by calculating the products of the VPDS and BAVQ-R scales, and using the main effect and the products as independent variables in multiple regressions. 3.4 All variables and moderators were entered simultaneously for each of the two regression analyses. 3.5 Centred scores were used for all variables. Results Descriptive statistics  The sample had a mean body mass index (BMI) of 16.0 (SD = 1.45, range = 12-17.5). Their mean global EDE-Q score was 3.97 (SD = 1.23), which is typical of anorexia nervosa. Considering the anorexic voice measures, their mean VPDS score was 24.3 (SD = 4.63), their mean BAVQ-R malevolence score was 9.71 (SD = 4.65), and their mean BAVQ-R benevolence score was 4.80 (SD = 4.49). The VPDS had an acceptable level of internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = .728), while the alphas for the BAVQ-R malevolence and benevolence scales were also acceptable (.787 and .838 respectively).  THE ANOREXIC VOICE       6  Moderator analyses  In the first analysis 3.5 (based on centred scores), BMI was the dependent variable, and the independent variables were voice power (VPDS), 3.5 the BAVQ-R benevolence and malevolence scores, and the moderating effects of the BAVQ-R benevolence and malevolence scales. 3.5 There was a significant overall effect (F = 3.79; P < .007, variance explained = 23.6%). Considering the independent variables, there was no significant effect of benevolence (t = 0.77, NS) on BMI and no effect of the VPDS x Benevolence term (t = 0.80, NS). However, there was a significant impact of voice power on BMI (t = 2.44, P < .02, beta = 2.44), an effect of malevolence (t = 2.96, P < .005, beta = 2.21), and a moderating effect of VPDS x Malevolence (t = 3.35, P < .002, beta = -2.69). 3.8 Thus, higher levels of voice power and malevolence were associated with higher BMI as individual variables. However, the negative beta in the VPDS x Malevolence interaction shows that a more malevolent nature to the voice interacted with its power to determine a lower BMI. In the second analysis 3.5 (again, based on centred scores), global EDE-Q was the dependent variable, and the independent variables were as before. 3.5 There was a significant overall effect (F = 10.1; P < .001, variance explained = 48.7%). Considering the individual independent variables, there was an effect of voice power (t = 2.23, P < .04, beta = .726), but there were no significant effects of voice malevolence (t = 1.38, NS) or benevolence (t = 0.82, NS). Nor were there significant moderating effects of malevolence (t = 1.12, NS) or benevolence (t = 0.28, NS). 3.8 Thus, the power of the anorexic voice was the only feature that predicted relatively unhealthy eating attitudes.   Discussion This study has examined the association of the internal anorexic voice with eating pathology in a sample of individuals with anorexia nervosa. 3.8 Negative eating attitudes were related to greater voice power rather than the quality of that voice. In contrast, BMI was lower where the voice had the combined characteristics of being both powerful and malevolent. This different pattern might relate to the ambivalent relationship that many individuals experience with their anorexia nervosa (18).   THE ANOREXIC VOICE       7  This preliminary study has a number of important limitations, requiring further research. First, it will be important to establish the proportion of patients who report experiences of an anorexic voice, rather than assuming it to be a universal experience in anorexia nervosa. Second, there was no healthy or clinical control group. Is the anorexic voice found in other eating disorders? Such research should also focus more specifically on the impact of the anorexic voice, rather than considering the more general ‘anorexic thoughts/voice’ (as was done here), to ensure that the findings reflect the power of the voice rather than eating disorder cognitions. Future research should also establish the voice measures’ wider psychometric properties in this group, including their test-retest reliability. 3.6 It is important to note that the internal consistencies of two of the scales (VPDS and malevolence) were acceptable but not strong (alpha greater than .7 but below .8) in this study. As the alpha level for a moderator variable is a product of the individual alpha levels of the scales used to generate that moderator, the result is that the internal consistency of the moderator term is relatively weak. Therefore, other measures of those constructs might be considered in future research. Further studies should also determine whether these patients (who were in clinical services) describe their voice experiences differently to those who are not in treatment, to test whether the construct of the ‘anorexic voice’ is one that is partly or completely driven by clinicians’ descriptions (19). Finally, it is not known which eating attitudes (shape, weight or eating concern) are most closely related to the anorexic voice. This will be a point for future, larger-scale research.  These findings suggest that eating disorder clinicians should routinely enquire about the anorexic voice, considering its role in case formulation. They also support the relevance of interventions that address the anorexic voice. 1.1 Relevant cognitive behavioural interventions include: re-evaluating voice content via cognitive modification and behavioural experimentation; addressing metacognitive appraisals of the voice (e.g., malevolence); and developing a more de-centred perspective on internal dialogues (9, 20-21). Approaches such as emotion-focused and voice dialogue therapy are also designed to encourage a relational approach to internal voices (6,22). For example, experiential interventions such as  THE ANOREXIC VOICE       8  ‘chair work’ are used to explore the functions of the anorexic voice, encourage assertive responding, set boundaries, and develop more affiliative and compassionate internal dialogues. Ultimately, the results of this study indicate that clinicians working with eating disorders might learn from methods developed for other disorders, such as psychosis.    Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank Dr. Jane Evans for assistance in developing this study.  Declaration of interests The authors have no competing interests.      THE ANOREXIC VOICE       9  References 1. Higbed L, Fox JRE. Illness perceptions in anorexia nervosa: A qualitative investigation. B J Clin Psychol 2010; 49:307-325. 2. Tierney S, Fox JRE. Living with the ‘anorexic voice’: A thematic analysis. Psychol Psychotherapy 2010; 83:243-254. 3. Noordenbos G, Aliakbari N, Campbell R. The relationship among critical inner voices, low self-esteem, and self-criticism in eating disorders. Eating Disord: J Treat Prevent 2014; 22:337-351. 4. Williams S, Reid M. ‘It’s like there are two people living in my head’: A phenomenological exploration of anorexia nervosa and its relationship to the self. Psychol Health 2012; 27:798-815.  5. Tierney S, Fox JRE. Trapped in a toxic relationship: Comparing the views of women living with anorexia nervosa to those experiencing domestic violence. J Gender Stud 2011; 20:31-41.  6. Dolhanty J, Greenberg LS. Emotion-focused therapy in a case of anorexia nervosa. Clin Psychol Psychotherapy 2009; 16:336-382. 7. Maisel R, Epston D, Borden A. Biting the hand that starves you: Inspiring resistance to anorexia/bulimia. New York NY: Norton 2004. 8. Schaefer J. Life without Ed: How one woman claimed independence from her eating disorder and how you can too. New York NY: McGraw-Hill. 9. Mountford V, Waller G. Using imagery in cognitive-behavioral therapy treatment for eating disorder: Tackling the restrictive mode. Int J Eat Disord 2006; 39: 533-543. 10. Mawson A, Cohen K, Berry K. Reviewing the evidence for the cognitive model of auditory hallucinations: The relationship between cognitive voice appraisals and distress during psychosis. Clin Psychol Rev 2010; 30:248-258 11. Birchwood M, Chadwick, P. The omnipotence of voices: Testing the validity of a cognitive model. Psychol Med 1997; 27: 1345-1353. 12. Gilbert P, Birchwood M, Gilbert J, Trower P, Hay J, Murray B, Meaden A, Olsen K, Niles  THE ANOREXIC VOICE       10  JN. An exploration of evolved mental mechanisms for dominant and subordinate behaviour in relation to auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia and critical thoughts in depression. Psychol Med 2001; 31: 1117-27. 13. World Health Organisation.ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders. Geneva: WHO, 1992. 14. Fairburn CG, Beglin S. Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q 6.0). In: Fairburn, CG (ed.), Cognitive behavior therapy and eating disorders (pp.309-313). New York NY: Guilford Press 2008. 15. Mond JM, Hay PJ, Rodgers B, Owen C, Beumont RJV. Validity of the Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q) in screening for eating disorders in community samples. Beh Res Ther 2004; 42:551-567. 16. Chadwick P, Lees S, Birchwood M. The revised Beliefs About Voices Questionnaire (BAVQ-R). Br J Psychiatry 2000; 177:229-232. 17. Baron RM, Kenny DA. The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. J Personality Soc Psychol 1986; 51:1173-1182. 18. Serpell L, Treasure J, Teasdale J, Sullivan V. Anorexia nervosa: Friend or foe? Int J Eating Disord 1999; 25:177-186.  19. Pugh M. The internal “anorexic voice”: A feature or fallacy of eating disorders? Adv Eat Disord 2015: in press. 20. Trower P, Birchwood M, Meaden A, Byrne S, Nelson A, Ross K. Cognitive therapy for command hallucinations: Randomized controlled trial. B J Psychiatry 2004; 184: 312-320. 21. Chadwick P. Person-based cognitive therapy for distressing psychosis. Chichester, UK: Wiley, 2006  22. Corstens D, Longden E, May R. Talking with voices: Exploring what is expressed by the voices people hear. Psychosis 2012; 4:95-104.  

The anorexic voice and severity of eating pathology in anorexia nervosa.

Matthew Pugh

Glenn Waller

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International Journal of Eating Disorders

The anorexic voice and severity of eating pathology in anorexia nervosa

https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/95295/3/MP%2520voices%2520paper%2520-%2520IJED%2520-%252018112015.pdf

The anorexic voice and severity of eating pathology in anorexia nervosa.

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