TURKMENISTAN'S NEW PRIVATE FARMERS: THE EFFECT OF HUMAN CAPITAL ON PERFORMANCE

Almost all former socialist countries are introducing private farming as part of land reform. In countries where such farming existed one or two generations ago, land might be restituted to former owners. In Turkmenistan, where there had been little private agriculture and no small landowners, land was distributed to new beneficiaries. This paper shows that the previous position of the new farm “owners” strongly affected what resources they had (land, capital, water) and how effectively they used them. The study is based on a survey conducted in 2000 on a sample of 143 farmers from Turkmenistan’s all five administrative regions. The farmers were divided for analysis into five categories, according to previous positions (managers, middle-level specialists, skilled and unskilled workers, and administrative staff). On the average, all categories of farmers turned a profit. However, the most successful were the middle-level specialists (agronomists, engineers). They had the largest plots, the best land, and the best-equipped farms. Like the managers and the administrative staff, they had savings, some of which they used as startup capital. They diversified their production more than others, and were better able to obtain credit. Former unskilled workers were the least successful, lacking capital, and unable to afford risks, thus growing only wheat and cotton at the expense of other crops and of livestock. Earlier studies have shown that former position affected the share of resources received by individuals in the ex Soviet Union. In addition to confirming the finding, we have shown that former position also affected the use of those resources, and the economic performance of the users. Unfortunately, the sample size was small, and our conclusions remain thus tentative.Farm Management,

Vulnerability and Risk Management among Turkmen Leaseholders

High risk is inherent to agriculture in Turkmenistan, a post-socialist desert country where the political uncertainties of transition exacerbate natural unpredictability. This study examines risk coping strategies of Turkmen farmers based on a survey of 1100 respondents carried out in 2002 in all five provinces. We propose a new composite index of vulnerability, which includes human capital indicators and geographic location. The analysis relies on a single independent variable, which nevertheless incorporates the effect of criteria interactions. Using survey data, we analyze income smoothing as a mechanisms of risk management across vulnerability groups. Consistently with theoretical expectations, the most vulnerable households seem prefer a smaller, but safer outcome over a larger but uncertain one: the most vulnerable households tend to specialize in wheat, which is less risky (and less profitable) than cotton, while less vulnerable households emphasize cotton. However, contrary to expectations and findings in other countries, Turkmen farmers do not follow many of the common risk coping strategies. The more vulnerable households do not readily diversify their income generating activities: they seldom take off-farm employment; rarely engage in cottage industries; do not diversify the production mix on their household plot. Nor is there evidence that the more vulnerable families show greater reliance on their subsistence household plot. The results seem to suggest that the more vulnerable households are trapped in a deep vulnerability trap, lacking initiative and probably resources to break out through income diversification strategies.agriculture, Turkmenistan, transition, vulnerability, income smoothing, Risk and Uncertainty, D1, J2, Q12,

The Impact of hedonic and utilitarian motivations on the hotel customers\u27 risk perception

The study proposes that deal-seeking travelers\u27 perception of risk may have a dual and contradicting impact on Expected Utility and, consequently, on their propensity to search for a better deal and book the travel product. According to a traditionally utilitarian motivation, a high level of risk and the prospect of negative results reduce Expected Utility, and they are therefore likely to reduce search activities and increase booking. This study argues that, due to hedonic motivations, consumers may enjoy the risk elements of their search for a better deal and, consequently, may respond to higher levels of induced risk perception by increasing search activities and reducing booking. The study explains how this finding impacts the way revenue-managing hotels, which seek to impact their customers\u27 behavior by inducing risk perceptions, should adapt their strategies

Land Reform In Turkmenistan: Does It Work?

Turkmenistan is one of the 25 former socialist countries in Europe and Central Asia that embarked on a transition from plan to market in the early 1990s. In agriculture, the transition was expected to improve the productivity of the chronically inefficient collective farming inherited from the Soviet era. Improvements were to be achieved through the transfer of land and assets from collective farms to individual operators, in line with the established practice of agriculture in market economies.  This study examines the progress of agricultural reform in Turkmenistan by focusing on land distribution, farm structure transformation, and changes in production patterns, marketing, and farm performance. The study is based on a survey of 143 private farmers conducted in Turkmenistan in 2000. Preliminary results indicate that, despite fairly generous allocation of land to individual farming, no significant performance improvements have been achieved so far, primarily because private farmers operate under severe environmental, institutional and political constraints

Effects of Climate Change on the Seasonality of Weather for Tourism in Alaska

This study presents a method to identify and categorize seasonal patterns of weather conducive to specific tourism activities, using a tourism climate index based on hourly weather data. We examined changes in seasonal weather patterns in recent decades (1942–2005) at two Alaska destinations, King Salmon and Anchorage. The results indicate that climate warming has had both positive and negative effects on opportunities for tourism. The overall weather conditions for sightseeing in King Salmon have improved significantly with a lengthening of the season, which now starts 10 days earlier than in the 1940s. Conversely, weather conditions for skiing in Anchorage have deteriorated, primarily because weather suitable for skiing now ends about nine days earlier than in the 1940s. Future climate change (i.e., continued warming) is very likely to extend the sightseeing season at King Salmon, but is less likely to improve the quality of the peak season. At the same time, though warming is likely to shorten the total time for skiing each year at Anchorage, it is also likely to improve the quality of the winter season and increase the frequency of years when skiing quality peaks in mid-winter. For both activities, changes of spring temperature will have the greatest impact on tourism weather. Tourism indices such as the one presented here can be tailored to the requirements of specific tourist activities, providing an opportunity for improved tourism planning and decision making.Cette étude présente une méthode d’identification et de catégorisation des variations météorologiques saisonnières propices à des activités touristiques particulières et ce, à l’aide d’un indice climatique touristique reposant sur des données météorologiques horaires. Nous avons examiné les changements ayant caractérisé les variations météorologiques saisonnières de décennies récentes (1942–2005) à deux destinations de l’Alaska, soit King Salmon et Anchorage. Les résultats indiquent que le réchauffement climatique a eu des incidences à la fois positives et négatives sur les débouchés touristiques. Dans l’ensemble, les conditions météorologiques propices aux visites touristiques à King Salmon se sont améliorées considérablement en ce sens que la saison est maintenant plus longue, celle-ci commençant dix jours plus tôt que dans les années 1940. Par contre, les conditions météorologiques pour le ski se sont détériorées à Anchorage, principalement parce que le temps se prêtant au ski se termine maintenant environ neuf jours plus tôt que dans les années 1940. Les changements climatiques à venir (c’est-à-dire le réchauffement climatique continu) auront vraisemblablement pour effet de prolonger la saison des visites touristiques à King Salmon, sans que cela n’améliore pour autant la qualité de la haute saison. Par la même occasion, bien que le réchauffement aura probablement pour effet de raccourcir le nombre total de jours de ski à Anchorage chaque année, il aura vraisemblablement pour effet d’améliorer la qualité de la saison hivernale et d’augmenter la fréquence des années où la qualité du ski sera à son meilleur au milieu de l’hiver. Dans les deux cas, les changements caractérisant les températures enregistrées au printemps auront les plus grandes incidences sur les conditions météorologiques pour le tourisme. Les indices du tourisme, tel que celui présenté ici, peuvent être adaptés aux exigences d’activités touristiques spécifiques, ce qui donne la possibilité de mieux planifier les activités touristiques et de prendre des décisions à meilleur escient

Are You A Tourist? Tourists’ Self-identification and the Definition of Tourism

This study empirically investigates the question of who is a tourist, building on the literature of what is tourism, how to measure tourism, and the negative characterization of the term tourist. The study’s main contribution is that it contrasts the distance-based practical definitions with tourists’ self-identification and characterizes those who define themselves as tourists. Data came from 1,619 responses to a visitor survey, conducted at a midwestern destination. A surprisingly high proportion of the respondents self-identified as tourists suggested that while it might still exist, the negative connotation of the term “tourist” is not always as dominant as suggested by the literature. The statistical analyses (chi-square test, Marascuilo procedure, and a binary logistic model) suggest that the propensity to self-identify as tourist is positively related to the distance traveled and first-visit status, and it is lower among visitors whose trip purpose was to visit friends or relatives. These findings on how travelers might feel about the role of distance in the definition of tourism could assist policy makers who use distance to define and measure tourism. The characterization of those who self-identify as tourists has important implications for CVBs and DMOs who wish to better address the negative connotation of the term “tourist” in their communication

24R,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 Protects against Articular Cartilage Damage following Anterior Cruciate Ligament Transection in Male Rats

Osteoarthritis (OA) in humans is associated with low circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 [25 (OH)D3]. In vitamin D replete rats, radiolabeled 24R,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 [24R,25 (OH)2D3] accumulates in articular cartilage following injection of [3 H]-25(OH)D3. Previously, we showed that 24R,25(OH)2D3 blocks chondrocyte apoptosis via phospholipase D and p53, suggesting a role for 24R,25(OH)2D3 in maintaining cartilage health. We examined the ability of 24R,25(OH)2D3 to prevent degenerative changes in articular cartilage in an OAlike environment and the potential mechanisms involved. In vitro, rat articular chondrocytes were treated with IL-1β with and without 24R,25(OH)2D3 or 1α,25(OH)2D3. 24R,25(OH)2D3 but not 1α,25(OH)2D3 blocked the effects of IL-1β in a dose-dependent manner, and its effect was partially mediated through the TGF-β1 signaling pathway. In vivo, unilateral anterior cruciate ligament transections were performed in immunocompetent rats followed by intra-articular injections of 24R,25(OH)2D3 or vehicle (t = 0, 7, 14, 21 days). Tissues were harvested on day 28. Joints treated with vehicle had changes typical of OA whereas joints treated with 24R,25(OH)2D3 had less articular cartilage damage and levels of inflammatory mediators. These results indicate that 24R,25(OH)2D3 protects against OA, and suggest that it may be a therapeutic approach for preventing trauma-induced osteoarthritis

Amelogenin Peptide Extract Increases Differentiation and Angiogenic and Local Factor Production and Inhibits Apoptosis in Human Osteoblasts

Enamel matrix derivative (EMD), a decellularized porcine extracellular matrix (ECM), is used clinically in periodontal tissue regeneration. Amelogenin, EMD’s principal component, spontaneously assembles into nanospheres in vivo, forming an ECM complex that releases proteolytically cleaved peptides. However, the role of amelogenin or amelogenin peptides in mediating osteoblast response to EMD is not clear. Human MG63 osteoblast-like cells or normal human osteoblasts were treated with recombinant human amelogenin or a 5 kDa tyrosine-rich amelogenin peptide (TRAP) isolated from EMD and the effect on osteogenesis, local factor production, and apoptosis assessed. Treated MG63 cells increased alkaline phosphatase specific activity and levels of osteocalcin, osteoprotegerin, prostaglandin E2, and active/latent TGF-β1, an effect sensitive to the effector and concentration. Primary osteoblasts exhibited similar, but less robust, effects. TRAP-rich 5 kDa peptides yielded more mineralization than rhAmelogenin in osteoblasts in vitro. Both amelogenin and 5 kDa peptides protected MG63s from chelerythrine-induced apoptosis. The data suggest that the 5 kDa TRAP-rich sequence is an active amelogenin peptide that regulates osteoblast differentiation and local factor production and prevents osteoblast apoptosis

Vitamin D3 metabolites in amniotic fluid in relation with maternal and fetal sera in term pregnancies

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