IL-10 plays a central regulatory role in the cytokines induced by hepatitis C virus core protein and polyinosinic acid:polycytodylic acid

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) can cause persistent infection and chronic liver disease, and viral factors are involved in HCV persistence. HCV core protein, a highly conserved viral protein, not only elicits an immunoresponse, but it also regulates it. In addition, HCV core protein interacts with toll-like receptors (TLRs) on monocytes, inducing them to produce cytokines. Polyinosinic acid:polycytodylic acid (polyI:C) is a synthetic analogue of double-stranded RNA that binds to TLR3 and can induce secretion of type I IFN from monocytes. Cytokine response against HCV is likely to affect the natural course of infection as well as HCV persistence. However, possible effects of cytokines induced by HCV core protein and polyI:C remain to be investigated. In this study, we isolated CD14+ monocytes from healthy donors, cultured them in the presence of HCV core protein and/or polyI:C, and characterized the induced cytokines, phenotypes and mechanisms. We demonstrated that HCV core protein- and polyI:C-stimulated CD14+ monocytes secreted tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-10, and type I interferon (IFN). Importantly, TNF-α and IL-1β regulated the secretion of IL-10, which then influenced the expression of signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) and interferon regulatory factor 1 (IRF1) and subsequently the production of type I IFN. Interestingly, type I IFN also regulated the production of IL-10, which in turn inhibited the nuclear factor (NF)-κB subunit, reducing TNF-α and IL-1β levels. Therefore, IL-10 appears to play a central role in regulating the production of cytokines induced by HCV core protein and polyI:C

Brucella Dysregulates Monocytes and Inhibits Macrophage Polarization through LC3-Dependent Autophagy

Brucellosis is caused by infection with Brucella species and exhibits diverse clinical manifestations in infected humans. Monocytes and macrophages are not only the first line of defense against Brucella infection but also a main reservoir for Brucella. In the present study, we examined the effects of Brucella infection on human peripheral monocytes and monocyte-derived polarized macrophages. We showed that Brucella infection led to an increase in the proportion of CD14++CD16− monocytes and the expression of the autophagy-related protein LC3B, and the effects of Brucella-induced monocytes are inhibited after 6 weeks of antibiotic treatment. Additionally, the production of IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, and TNF-α from monocytes in patients with brucellosis was suppressed through the LC3-dependent autophagy pathway during Brucella infection. Moreover, Brucella infection inhibited macrophage polarization. Consistently, the addition of 3-MA, an inhibitor of LC3-related autophagy, partially restored macrophage polarization. Intriguingly, we also found that the upregulation of LC3B expression by rapamycin and heat-killed Brucella in vitro inhibits M2 macrophage polarization, which can be reversed partially by 3-MA. Taken together, these findings reveal that Brucella dysregulates monocyte and macrophage polarization through LC3-dependent autophagy. Thus, targeting this pathway may lead to the development of new therapeutics against Brucellosis

Regulatory NK cells mediated between immunosuppressive monocytes and dysfunctional T cells in chronic HBV infection

Background and aims HBV infection represents a major health problem worldwide, but the immunological mechanisms by which HBV causes chronic persistent infection remain only partly understood. Recently, cell subsets with suppressive features have been recognised among monocytes and natural killer (NK) cells. Here we examine the effects of HBV on monocytes and NK cells. Methods Monocytes and NK cells derived from chronic HBV-infected patients and healthy controls were purified and characterised for phenotype, gene expression and cytokines secretion by flow cytometry, quantitative real-time (qRT)-PCR, ELISA and western blotting. Culture and coculture of monocytes and NK cells were used to determine NK cell activation, using intracellular cytokines staining. Results In chronic HBV infection, monocytes express higher levels of PD-L1, HLA-E, interleukin (IL)-10 and TGF-β, and NK cells express higher levels of PD-1, CD94 and IL-10, compared with healthy individuals. HBV employs hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) to induce suppressive monocytes with HLA-E, PD-L1, IL-10 and TGF-β expression via the MyD88/NFκ B signalling pathway. HBV-treated monocytes induce NK cells to produce IL-10, via PD-L1 and HLA-E signals. Such NK cells inhibit autologous T cell activation. Conclusions Our findings reveal an immunosuppressive cascade, in which HBV generates suppressive monocytes, which initiate regulatory NK cells differentiation resulting in T cell inhibition

HCV core protein inhibits polarization and activity of both M1 and M2 macrophages through the TLR2 signaling pathway

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) establishes persistent infection in most infected patients, and eventually causes chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma in some patients. Monocytes and macrophages provide the first line of defense against pathogens, but their roles in HCV infection remains unclear. We have reported that HCV core protein (HCVc) manipulates human blood-derived dendritic cell development. In the present study, we tested whether HCVc affects human blood-derived monocyte differentiating into macrophages. Results showed that HCVc inhibits monocyte differentiation to either M1 or M2 macrophages through TLR2, associated with impaired STATs signaling pathway. Moreover, HCVc inhibits phagocytosis activity of M1 and M2 macrophages, M1 macrophage-induced autologous and allogeneic CD4+ T cell activation, but promotes M2 macrophage-induced autologous and allogeneic CD4+ T cell activation. In conclusion, HCVc inhibits monocyte-derived macrophage polarization via TLR2 signaling, leading to dysfunctions of both M1 and M2 macrophages in chronic HCV infected patients. This may contribute to the mechanism of HCV persistent infection, and suggest that blockade of HCVc might be a novel therapeutic approach to treating HCV infection

Hepatitis C virus core protein triggers expansion and activation of CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells in chronic hepatitis C patients

CD4+CD25+FoxP3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) are increased in patients with chronic hepatitis C, which may contribute to the sustained suppression of hepatitis C virus (HCV)-specific T-cell responses and viral persistence in HCV-infected individuals. We postulated that HCV core protein (HCVc) directly contributes to the expansion of Tregs in HCV-infected patients, and we provide evidence to support this hypothesis in the report. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and sera were collected from 87 treatment-naïve chronic HCV-infected patients, CD4+CD25+ Tregs were measured by flow cytometry, and HCV RNA and HCVc levels were detected using qPCR and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), respectively. CD4+, CD8+, CD4+CD25+ and CD4+CD25− T cells were purified from healthy donors and cultured with recombinant HCVc and Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands. Flow cytometry was used to analyze cell proliferation, and ELISA was performed to measure cytokine production. In the 87 chronic HCV-infected patients, HCVc showed a significant correlation with HCV RNA and CD4+CD25+ Tregs. Mechanistic studies showed that HCVc, together with anti-CD3 antibody, augmented CD4+CD25+ Treg proliferation, but inhibited CD4+CD25− T-cell proliferation and IFN-γ production, in a dose-dependent and Treg-dependent manner. Moreover, unlike the TLR3 ligand (poly I:C) and the TLR4 ligand (lipopolysaccharide, LPS), the TLR2 ligand (lipoteichoic acid, LTA) and HCVc both inhibited TCR-induced CD4+ T-cell proliferation and IFN-γ secretion in a Treg-dependent manner. These data indicate that HCVc, like other TLR2 ligands, triggers CD4+CD25+ Treg activation and expansion to inhibit host immune responses, which may play a critical role in viral persistence in HCV-infected patients

Brucella Dysregulates Monocytes and Inhibits Macrophage Polarization through LC3-Dependent Autophagy

Brucellosis is caused by infection with Brucella species and exhibits diverse clinical manifestations in infected humans. Monocytes and macrophages are not only the first line of defense against Brucella infection but also a main reservoir for Brucella. In the present study, we examined the effects of Brucella infection on human peripheral monocytes and monocyte-derived polarized macrophages. We showed that Brucella infection led to an increase in the proportion of CD14++CD16− monocytes and the expression of the autophagy-related protein LC3B, and the effects of Brucella-induced monocytes are inhibited after 6 weeks of antibiotic treatment. Additionally, the production of IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, and TNF-α from monocytes in patients with brucellosis was suppressed through the LC3-dependent autophagy pathway during Brucella infection. Moreover, Brucella infection inhibited macrophage polarization. Consistently, the addition of 3-MA, an inhibitor of LC3-related autophagy, partially restored macrophage polarization. Intriguingly, we also found that the upregulation of LC3B expression by rapamycin and heat-killed Brucella in vitro inhibits M2 macrophage polarization, which can be reversed partially by 3-MA. Taken together, these findings reveal that Brucella dysregulates monocyte and macrophage polarization through LC3-dependent autophagy. Thus, targeting this pathway may lead to the development of new therapeutics against Brucellosis

Hepatitis C Virus Induces MDSCs-Like Monocytes through TLR2/PI3K/AKT/STAT3 Signaling

<div><p>Background and Aims</p><p>Recent studies reveal the accumulation of myeloid derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) following HCV infection, which may facilitate and maintain HCV persistent infection. The mechanisms by which HCV induces MDSCs are poorly understood. In the present study, we investigated the mechanisms by which HCV induces MDSCs that lead to suppression of T cell proliferation and expansion of CD4⁺Foxp3⁺ regulatory T cells.</p><p>Methods</p><p>Purified monocytes from healthy donors were cultured with HCV core protein (HCVc) or cell culture-derived HCV virions (HCVcc), and characterized the phenotype and function of these monocytes by flow cytometry, quantitative PCR, ELISA and western blot assays. In addition, peripheral blood from healthy donors and chronic HCV infected patients was collected, and MDSCs and CD4⁺CD25⁺CD127^- regulatory T cells were analyzed by flow cytometry.</p><p>Results</p><p>Both HCVc and HCVcc induced expression of IDO1, PD-L1 and IL-10, and significantly down-regulated HLA-DR expression in human monocytes. HCVc-treated monocytes triggered CD4⁺Foxp3⁺ Tregs expansion, and inhibited autologous CD4⁺ T cell activation in an IDO1-dependent fashion. Our results showed that HCV virions or HCV core proteins induced MDSC-like suppressive monocytes via the TLR2/PI3K/AKT/STAT3 signaling pathway. Monocytes derived from patients with chronic HCV infection displayed MDSCs characteristics. Moreover, the percentages of CD14⁺ MDSCs and CD4⁺CD25⁺CD127^- Tregs in chronic HCV infected patients were significantly higher than healthy individuals, and the frequency of MDSCs correlated with CD4⁺CD25⁺CD127^- Tregs.</p><p>Conclusions</p><p>HCV induced MDSC-like suppressive monocytes through TLR2/PI3K/AKT/STAT3 signaling pathway to induce CD4⁺Foxp3⁺ regulatory T cells and inhibit autologous CD4⁺ T cell activation. It will be of interest to test whether antagonizing suppressive functions of MDSCs could enhance immune responses and virus control in chronic HCV infection.</p></div

HCVc and HCVcc induce suppressive monocytes to inhibit autologous CD4⁺ T cell activation and expand CD4⁺Foxp3⁺ Tregs in an IDO1-dependent manner.

<p>CFSE-labeled CD4⁺ T cells were stimulated with pre-coated OKT3 (CD3 mAb) and CD28 antibody, and co-cultured with HCVc- and HCVcc-treated autologous monocytes in the absence or presence of 1-MT. Foxp3 expression and proliferation of the autologous CD4⁺ T cell were evaluated by intracellular staining and flow cytometry. One of five representative experiments is shown as histogram (A) and contour (B). The proliferation of CD4⁺ T cells (C) and CD4⁺Foxp3⁺ T cells (E) are statistically analyzed from five experiments. The supernatants were collected and assayed by ELISA for IFN γ production (D). The bars represent the standard error of the mean. Abbreviation: 1-MT, 1-methyl-DL-tryptophan.</p

HCVc and HCVcc induce IDO1 expression, and produce kynurenine (Kyn) and degradate tryptophan (Trp) in monocytes.

<p>Purified monocytes from healthy HCV-negative blood donors were cultured with HCVc or HCVcc. Cells were collected at 10 hours for measuring IDO1 mRNA levels by qRT-PCR (A). Intracellular staining was performed for IDO1 expression (B). The cell culture supernatants were collected, and the concentrations of Kyn and Trp were examined by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. The concentrations of Kyn (C) and Trp (D) are shown, and E shows the ratio of Kyn/Trp. The bars represent the standard error of the mean. Abbreviation: Kyn, kynurenine; Trp, tryptophan; IDO1, indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1.</p

Both HCVc and HCVcc induce suppressive monocytes in vitro.

<p>Purified monocytes from healthy HCV-negative blood donors were cultured for two days in the presence of increasing concentrations of HCVc (0.1, 1.0, 10.0 μg/ml) or HCVcc (10⁴, 10⁵,10⁶ HCV genome copies/ml). HLA-DR (A) and PD-L1 (B) expression was analyzed by flow cytometry. (C) The mRNA expression of IL-10 was determined by qRT-PCR. (D) IL-10 production was assayed with ELISA. (E) The surface marker expression profile of monocytes was analyzed by flow cytometry. One of five representative experiments is shown. MFI is normalized as the ratio of HCVc/mock and HCVcc/mock for surface marker expression profile. Abbreviation: MFI, Mean Fluorescence intensity.</p