Seizing The Opportunity: Principal Exercise Of Budget Autonomy In A Decentralized Environment

The decentralization of budget decisions from the central office to the schoolhouse has emerged as a system-changing strategy to give principals the flexibility to allocate their resources to areas most likely to improve educational outcomes (Snow & Williamson, 2015). Budget decentralization is viewed as a promising reform strategy, especially for low-performing schools that are eager to apply new approaches to meet their students’ needs (Fermanich, Odden, & Archibald, 2000). As more districts have announced a transition to decentralized budget decision-making, scholars have observed that schools have generally stayed with long-standing budget practices and have not embraced autonomy (Bjork & Blase, 2009; Honig & Rainey, 2012). The theoretical framework of distributed leadership provides insight into why school leaders might exercise, or might not exercise, this newfound budget authority. The focus of this dissertation was a large urban/suburban school district in Georgia, which has made substantial investments in creating school-level budget autonomy. This study sought to understand whether school leaders exercise budget flexibility when a district has built an environment supportive of decentralization by enacting key distributed leadership provisions. Ninety-four traditional public schools were included in this study. The budget allocation from the central office and the submitted school budget were compared. This study set out to analyze four main budget groupings: (a) teachers, (b) paraprofessionals, (c) support personnel, and (d) non personnel. This study found that the behavior of principals did significantly differ among elementary, middle, and high schools. While the majority of budget changes were not statistically significant, middle school principals did significantly reduce their teacher allocation, and elementary principals did significantly reduce their non personnel spending. Additionally, low-performing schools exercised this autonomy at greater rates than their peers in high performing schools. Finally, the amount of time operating in a decentralized budget environment did not lead to a statistically significant increase in the exercise of budget autonomy. This insight into the degree to which educational leaders exercise budget autonomy can inform the decentralization efforts that are currently underway in district offices across the country

A colorimetric determination of the decay in an observer\u27s color sensation due to adaptation

When the eye gazes at a colored stimulus over a certain length of time, it becomes fatigued and perceives the stimulus differently after it has adapted to it than when it first viewed it. An instrument has been designed, built, and tested and the results indicate that there is a significant difference between the fatigued eye and the fresh eye and that this difference can be expressed in colorimetric terms

HEAD STABILIZATION AND CORTICAL ACTIVATION IN CONTACT SPORT ATHLETES DURING WALKING UNDER DIFFERENT VISUAL TASK CONSTRAINTS

Contact sport participation exposes athletes to repetitive sub-concussive head impacts, which have been shown to elicit cortical neurophysiologic, cognitive, and motor performance alterations that have the potential to disrupt visual perception. Despite the growing concern regarding sub-concussive impacts, our understanding of their implications on motor performance and risk for further injury is limited. A stable head provides a consistent perceptual platform for the visual and vestibular sensory systems, but the effects of contact sport participation on head stability and visual perception remain poorly understood. The goal of this dissertation was to understand whether contact sport participation modifies athletes’ ability to stabilize their head in space and the cortical mechanisms associated with these modifications. To address this goal, we asked the following questions: 1) how does contact sport exposure impact an athlete’s perception-action capabilities during visually demanding locomotor tasks; and 2) whether changes in cortical activity would relate to these motor performance changes. To address our questions, a stepwise approach was taken in three studies to understand how repetitive head impact exposure affects movement control, and how this xi is related to changes in visual perception and cortical activity. First, athletes completed a series of treadmill walking tasks with varying levels of visual task constraints; these constraints increased walking task difficulty to gain insights into how contact sport exposure disrupts the underlying dynamics associated with locomotor tasks and visual perception. By examining coordination, coordination variability, local dynamic stability, and dynamic visual acuity, a more complete understanding of the effects of cumulative sub-concussive impact exposure on locomotor dynamics, and how they relate to perceptual awareness was achieved. Next, to establish whether cortical alterations were associated with changes in motor performance, cortical neurophysiology was assessed while athletes completed a series of two postural and two locomotor tasks, some of which (one postural and one locomotor) included a visually demanding cognitive challenge. We aimed to assess cortical activity in athletes during cognitive and motor challenges to further our understanding of the cortical mechanisms associated with behavioral performance in ecologically relevant environments; this was done through lab-based protocols that attempted to mimic real world environments. Results from the first study indicated contact sport exposure modifies head control. Contact athletes reduced mediolateral head displacement while increasing vertical head and trunk displacement during locomotor tasks. This may be reflective of the reduced independent head control in the transverse plane, revealed through a coordination assessment. The findings from study two highlighted group differences during more demanding fast baseline walking, as indicated by reduced vertical head local dynamic stability in contact sport athletes compared to noncontact athletes during walking at higher speed than preferred. In addition, contact athletes significantly reduced xii both upper and lower body coordination variability during locomotor tasks. This lower variability in the contact group for trunk-head coordination was observed while performing the visual Landolt-C task was imposed, while group differences in lower body variability were present across all conditions. Also, contact athletes exhibited more frequent reductions in lower body variability during visual tasks compared to noncontact athletes. While the beneficial aspects of variability may be task dependent, in the context of sport performance and visual perception, higher variability may be indicative of exploiting abundant degrees of freedom, while reductions in variability are suggestive of sub-optimal performance and/or potential for injury. These findings highlight consistent reductions in movement flexibility and adaptability that may result from contact sport participation. In study three, no statistically significant changes in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex activity were present between groups, but moderate differences were observed during postural tasks, where on average, noncontact athletes increased cortical activity in response to a visual working memory task while contact athletes did not show a response. Similarly, while no statistically significant differences in motor performance were observed, moderate effects were observed for both postural and locomotor motor performance. Specifically, contact athletes displayed greater average mediolateral Center of Mass velocities during postural tasks, and reduced mediolateral head and trunk local dynamic stability during baseline gait compared to noncontact athletes. Collectively across all three studies, no differences in dynamic visual acuity or visual working memory performance were observed. The present studies utilized treadmill walking tasks with varying levels of visual task constraints to assess the consequences of contact sport participation on visual xiii perception, motor performance and cortical neurophysiology. Contact sport athletes exhibited distinct movement dynamics compared to noncontact athletes, including changes in whole-body coordination, variability, and local dynamic stability. Contact athletes reduced independent head control and whole-body coordination variability, which may suggest a modified ability to control joint and segmental degrees of freedom independently. Similarly, while limited within task differences were observed, how athletes responded to the changing constraints differed based on speculated repetitive sub-concussive head impact exposure. Despite prior reports, which identify cortical neurophysiologic alterations associated with increased head impact exposure, we observed no statistically significant group differences in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex oxyhemoglobin concentration changes in response to visual working memory and locomotor tasks imposed in the present study. These findings collectively underscore the intricate nature of the effects of subconcussive head impact exposure on cortical neurophysiology, motor performance, cognition, and visual perception. While visual task performance did not differ, contact athletes demonstrated reductions in independent segment control and movement adaptability during visually demanding motor tasks, which could potentially heighten the risk of injury during sport-specific tasks, though further study is needed

IN MEMORIUM: GEORGE ROUDEBUSH CATLETT (1917-2013)

George R. Catlett, the senior technical partner of Arthur Andersen & Co. from 1962 to 1980, died on October 10, 2013 in Pewaukee, Wisconsin. He was born on August 14, 1917 in Fairmount, Illinois, where he grew up

Head-Trunk Coordination and Coordination Variability During Anticipated and Unanticipated Sidestepping

INTRODUCTION: Sensory systems within the head provide us with rich perceptual information and may require complex control of the head during locomotion when changing direction. Head position in space is maintained by head on trunk motion as well as lower extremity kinematic modifications, such as increased knee flexion and increased stance time in order to facilitate shock attenuation and reduce vertical CoM displacement. It has been established that the body organizes its degrees of freedom of the trunk, pelvis and lower extremities differently during anticipated and unanticipated sidestepping, which raises the question of how these modifications affect head control during change of direction tasks. METHODS: Fourteen collegiate soccer players performed 7 anticipated and 7 unanticipated sidestepping tasks. Kinematic data were recorded using an 11-camera motion capture system (Qualysis, Inc., Gothenburg, Sweden) sampling at 240 Hz. Head and trunk orientation was quantified at penultimate toe off. A modified vector coding analysis was used to quantify the coordination and coordination variability between the head and trunk during the anticipated and unanticipated side-stepping trials. Differences in head-trunk orientation and coordination pattern frequencies were assessed with a paired t-test with an . One-dimensional statistical parametric mapping (SPM1D) was used to compare coordination variability waveforms. RESULTS: The head (p \u3c 0.01, ES = 0.82) and trunk (p \u3c 0.05, ES = 0.59) were significantly more oriented toward the new travel direction during anticipated compared to unanticipated sidestepping. No significant differences in transverse or sagittal plane coordination were observed throughout the change of direction stride. However, during unanticipated sidestepping we observed significantly reduced in-phase head-trunk coordination during the preparatory phase in the sagittal (p = 0.04, ES = 0.63) and transverse (p = 0.02, ES = 0.73) planes but did not find differences in the stance or post-transition phases. Coordination variability did not differ between anticipated and unanticipated conditions. Irrespective of planning time, greater transverse plane coordination variability was observed during the flight phases compared to the stance phase (p \u3c 0.01) of the change of direction stride. Sagittal plane coordination variability was significantly greater during the preparatory phase than the stance phase (p \u3c 0.01), and stance phase coordination variability was significantly greater than post-transition phase variability (p \u3c 0.01). SIGNIFICANCE: Our results suggest differences in coordination between the head and trunk between anticipated and unanticipated sidestepping emerge during the preparatory phase of the change of direction stride, from penultimate step toe off to transition step heel strike. Anticipated and unanticipated sidestepping are different tasks, but individuals are consistent in the way the head-trunk coupling is controlled. Relating variability to task goals may allow for a better understanding of the beneficial aspects of variability observed at the head