Male attractiveness, courtship rate and hind leg length did not indicate direct benefits on females.

<p>Male attractiveness (copulation latency), courtship rate, and male hind leg length were not associated with female lifetime reproductive success and longevity. The y-axis is the female lifetime reproductive success (a, c, e) and longevity (b, d, f), respectively. The x-axis is the Male attractiveness (a, b), courtship rate (c, d), and male hind leg length (e, f), respectively. In male attractiveness, increases on the x-axis represent decreased attractiveness.</p

Heritabilities (<i>h</i>²) and genetic correlations ± SE in male attractiveness and traits.

<p>Heritabilities (<i>h</i>²) are given on the diagonal and additive genetic correlations below the diagonal. Values in parentheses are estimates re-calculated by excluding the highest point of latency. Estimates significantly different from zero (<i>P</i><0.05) are shown in bold.</p

Correlation between male attractiveness and courtship rate and between male attractiveness and hind leg length.

<p>The y-axis is the male attractiveness (copulation latency). The x-axis is the courtship rate (a) and hind leg length (b), respectively. Each circle shows family means for each sire. Increases on the y-axis represent decreased attractiveness.</p

Supplementary data from Ant circadian activity associated with brood care type

Circadian activity dat

Supplementary Material from Ant circadian activity associated with brood care type

Supplementary Methods and Figs. S1 S2 S

Pigmentation process during pupal development in females and males.

<p>Cuticular pigmentation progressed in a sex-specific manner (A). In female pupae, body color gradually turned from white to light-brown, to gray-brown, and finally to black (B). In male pupae, body color turned yellowish-brown, via light-brown phase (C).</p

Expression profiles of five pigmentation genes during pupal development of females (black lines) and males (orange lines).

<p>Expression levels of <i>yellow</i>, <i>ebony</i>, <i>tan</i>, <i>dopa decarboxylase</i> (<i>ddc</i>), and <i>pale</i> in the head, thorax, and abdomen of each sex were quantified through quantitative RT-PCR. Expression levels were normalized to those of <i>28S rRNA</i>. Mean ± SD, n = 3 (technical triplication).</p

Effects of RNAi experiments on mortality and eclosion.

<p>Effects of RNAi experiments on mortality and eclosion.</p

Sexually dimorphic pigmentation in <i>Diacamma</i> sp.

<p>Females exhibit a bluish-black color (A), while males appear yellowish-brown (B). Adult body color was evaluated in females (black dots) and males (orange dots) using a HSB (hue, saturation, and brightness) color model (C). Hypothetical pathway for synthesizing melanins (D). Melanin related pigments are represented by boxes, whose colors correspond to the hypothesized colors of each respective pigment. Pigment precursors and enzymes are represented in black and red lettering, respectively. (TH; Tyrosine Hydroxylase, DDC; Dopa Decarboxylase, PO; Phenoloxidase, DOPA; Dihydroxypheylalanine, NBAD; N-β-alanyldopamine)</p

Functional analysis of <i>yellow</i> through RNAi.

<p>Female and male pupae were injected twice with 1 μl of PBS (A and E) or 10 μg of either <i>GFP</i> (B and F) or <i>yellow</i> (C, D and G) dsRNA in 1 μl of PBS. Pupae injected with PBS or <i>GFP</i> dsRNA exhibited normal body color (A, B, E and F). Injection with <i>yellow</i> dsRNA affected pigmentation in females (C and D) but not in males (G). The effect of <i>yellow</i> RNAi varied among individual females. One female exhibited strongly impaired black pigmentation throughout the body (C), some exhibited only partially or weakly reduced coloration (D), while others exhibited an almost normal body color. The effect of RNAi on body color was evaluated using a HSB color model (H). The hue angle of <i>yellow</i>-RNAi females was significantly decreased and their brightness was significantly increased (see <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0092875#pone.0092875.s003" target="_blank">Fig. S3</a>).</p