Population responses of four hypothetical species to the scale of spatial autocorrelation in habitat quality <i>S</i>.

<p>(a) population size; (b) mean resource share of individuals; (c) mean mortality rate of individuals; (d) proportion of individuals in high-quality cells (<i>Q</i>≥0.5); (e) proportion of individuals experiencing competition. The figure shows mean±1 SD for 50 replicates for each variable.</p

Sample patterns of spatial distribution of individuals under different landscape scenarios.

<p>Hypothetical species are parameterized by environmental tolerance <i>C</i>_envir and mean moving distance <i>D</i>_mean. Black dots represent individuals residing in cells of <i>Q</i>≥0.5 and free of competition, while red dots are individuals residing in cells of <i>Q</i><0.5 or experiencing competition. Greener colour indicates higher habitat quality.</p

Coefficients of Spearman correlations of the mean resource share of individuals with (a) the proportion of individuals in high-quality cells and (b) the proportion of individuals experiencing competition for four hypothetical species under different landscape scenarios.

<p>Bars marked with an asterisk (*) indicate the coefficients are statistically significant at <i>P</i><0.05.</p

Flow diagrams of the submodels in the simulation model that determine mortality (a), reproduction (b), and (c) movement for a single individual within a time step.

<p>Flow diagrams of the submodels in the simulation model that determine mortality (a), reproduction (b), and (c) movement for a single individual within a time step.</p

Variables, parameters, and initial conditions used in the model.

<p>Variables, parameters, and initial conditions used in the model.</p

Summary of the percentages of the variation in response variables explained by factors scale of spatial autocorrelation in habitat quality (<i>S</i>), species environmental tolerance (<i>C</i>_envir), and mean moving distance (<i>D</i>_mean). Detailed ANOVAs for each response variable are presented in Table S1.

<p>Summary of the percentages of the variation in response variables explained by factors scale of spatial autocorrelation in habitat quality (<i>S</i>), species environmental tolerance (<i>C</i>_envir), and mean moving distance (<i>D</i>_mean). Detailed ANOVAs for each response variable are presented in <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0107742#pone.0107742.s003" target="_blank">Table S1</a>.</p

Unrooted haplotype network analysis of <i>A. ardens</i> based on mtDNA CYTB and ND2 sequences.

<p>Each circle represents a unique haplotype. The size of the circle indicates the number of individuals of each haplotype. Each black dot represents a single mutational change according to length.</p

Bayesian skyline plot of effective population size (scaled by mutation rate) through time.

<p>Estimates are shown along with the union of the 95% highest posterior density (HPD) areas. Note that the time scale begins with the present on the left and is given in substitutions per site, which can be converted to units of time via a molecular clock calibration.</p

Mismatch distribution of expected and observed with confidence intervals (A: spatial expansion; B: demographic expansion) of <i>A. ardens</i>.

<p>On the horizontal axis is the number of nucleotide site differences between pairs of individuals.</p

Map of the predicted distribution of <i>A. ardens</i> under current (A) and last glacial maximum (B).

<p>Distributions are shown from 0 (blue) and 1 (brown) probability. Note that the continental margin depicted on the LGM map differs from the other because sea level was lower during glacial periods.</p