Signal transduction in cells of the immune system in microgravity

Life on Earth developed in the presence and under the constant influence of gravity. Gravity has been present during the entire evolution, from the first organic molecule to mammals and humans. Modern research revealed clearly that gravity is important, probably indispensable for the function of living systems, from unicellular organisms to men. Thus, gravity research is no more or less a fundamental question about the conditions of life on Earth. Since the first space missions and supported thereafter by a multitude of space and ground-based experiments, it is well known that immune cell function is severely suppressed in microgravity, which renders the cells of the immune system an ideal model organism to investigate the influence of gravity on the cellular and molecular level. Here we review the current knowledge about the question, if and how cellular signal transduction depends on the existence of gravity, with special focus on cells of the immune system. Since immune cell function is fundamental to keep the organism under imnological surveillance during the defence against pathogens, to investigate the effects and possible molecular mechanisms of altered gravity is indispensable for long-term space flights to Earth Moon or Mars. Thus, understanding the impact of gravity on cellular functions on Earth will provide not only important informations about the development of life on Earth, but also for therapeutic and preventive strategies to cope successfully with medical problems during space exploration

The role of ultrasonography in patients with celiac disease

The aim of the present review was to summarize the current evidence on the role of ultrasonography (US) and doppler-US in the diagnosis of celiac disease. Several ultrasonographic signs have been reported in the association with celiac disease in studies using real-time US. Firstly, case control studies identified some of these US signs and then in a prospective series some of these parameters, due to their high specificity, have been shown to be of value in confirming CD diagnosis, whereas others, due to their high sensitivity, have been demonstrated to be useful in excluding the presence of the disease. The pattern of splanchnic circulation in CD have extensively been investigated by several studies all of which reported similar results and identified a hyperdynamic mesenteric circulation that reverts to normal values after successful a gluten-free regimen. The last part of this review will deal with the possible role of US in identifying the most severe and common intestinal complication of CD, i.e. the enteropathy-associated T cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma