Global maps of soil temperature.

Research in global change ecology relies heavily on global climatic grids derived from estimates of air temperature in open areas at around 2 m above the ground. These climatic grids do not reflect conditions below vegetation canopies and near the ground surface, where critical ecosystem functions occur and most terrestrial species reside. Here, we provide global maps of soil temperature and bioclimatic variables at a 1-km <sup>2</sup> resolution for 0-5 and 5-15 cm soil depth. These maps were created by calculating the difference (i.e. offset) between in situ soil temperature measurements, based on time series from over 1200 1-km <sup>2</sup> pixels (summarized from 8519 unique temperature sensors) across all the world's major terrestrial biomes, and coarse-grained air temperature estimates from ERA5-Land (an atmospheric reanalysis by the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts). We show that mean annual soil temperature differs markedly from the corresponding gridded air temperature, by up to 10°C (mean = 3.0 ± 2.1°C), with substantial variation across biomes and seasons. Over the year, soils in cold and/or dry biomes are substantially warmer (+3.6 ± 2.3°C) than gridded air temperature, whereas soils in warm and humid environments are on average slightly cooler (-0.7 ± 2.3°C). The observed substantial and biome-specific offsets emphasize that the projected impacts of climate and climate change on near-surface biodiversity and ecosystem functioning are inaccurately assessed when air rather than soil temperature is used, especially in cold environments. The global soil-related bioclimatic variables provided here are an important step forward for any application in ecology and related disciplines. Nevertheless, we highlight the need to fill remaining geographic gaps by collecting more in situ measurements of microclimate conditions to further enhance the spatiotemporal resolution of global soil temperature products for ecological applications

Global maps of soil temperature

Research in global change ecology relies heavily on global climatic grids derived from estimates of air temperature in open areas at around 2 m above the ground. These climatic grids do not reflect conditions below vegetation canopies and near the ground surface, where critical ecosystem functions occur and most terrestrial species reside. Here, we provide global maps of soil temperature and bioclimatic variables at a 1-km resolution for 0-5 and 5-15 cm soil depth. These maps were created by calculating the difference (i.e. offset) between in situ soil temperature measurements, based on time series from over 1200 1-km pixels (summarized from 8519 unique temperature sensors) across all the world's major terrestrial biomes, and coarse-grained air temperature estimates from ERA5-Land (an atmospheric reanalysis by the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts). We show that mean annual soil temperature differs markedly from the corresponding gridded air temperature, by up to 10°C (mean = 3.0 ± 2.1°C), with substantial variation across biomes and seasons. Over the year, soils in cold and/or dry biomes are substantially warmer (+3.6 ± 2.3°C) than gridded air temperature, whereas soils in warm and humid environments are on average slightly cooler (−0.7 ± 2.3°C). The observed substantial and biome-specific offsets emphasize that the projected impacts of climate and climate change on near-surface biodiversity and ecosystem functioning are inaccurately assessed when air rather than soil temperature is used, especially in cold environments. The global soil-related bioclimatic variables provided here are an important step forward for any application in ecology and related disciplines. Nevertheless, we highlight the need to fill remaining geographic gaps by collecting more in situ measurements of microclimate conditions to further enhance the spatiotemporal resolution of global soil temperature products for ecological applications

Matrix analysis of the structure of small group discussion

This paper describes a new method of analysis for small group Disscussion called "Matrix Analysis". The author then shows how it was applied to the comparison of differences between 26 small group discussions of 9-13 year old students. Comparisons are made between three groups of students: (A) groups trained in thinking skills and group discussion, (B) groups with practice in group discussion, (C) untrained groups. Restricting the analysis in this paper to one feature of the discussions (the extent to which different groups develop ideas according to a "spiral" pattern) the author shows that differences were significantly affected by practice in discussion and training in thinking skills

Action research and professional development

This paper begins with a brief explanation of the action research spiral in terms of its four moments (plan, act, data, analysis), and with theory and practice and the notion 'strategic action' An example of a typical action research project and four kinds of action research (technical, practical, critical and emancipatory) are outlined in terms of five basic variables or characteristics (direction, participation, practices, consciousness and values, and constraints). The second half of the paper explores three currently major issues in action research as teacher development, namely, different kinds of action research projects, facilitation and the role of journals in the development of critical consciousness and action research projects. The paper concludes with some examples of the way in which action research can be initiated through the analysis of critical incidents recorded inteachers' professional journals

Socially critical action research

Collective reflection by subordinate groups leads to recognition not only of the roles of dominant groups in constructing established beliefs and practices, but also of their own roles in that process and of their own potential power to reconstruct such beliefs and practices. (Livingstone, 1987, p. 8

The evaluation of the De Bono (CoRT) thinking project: Some theoretical issues

This paper is written from the author's experience during his first major curriculum project evaluation, when as is often the case, practical rather than theoretical considerations were foregrounded. However, as in any evaluation, issues which appeared to be essentially practical were often later seen as examples of more general problems which were themselves the products of theoretical considerations. In this paper some major problems of the evaluation are described as they appeared to the author at the time; they are related to the underlying theoretical issues, with the intention of serving the interests of both the educator engaged in evaluation and the professional evaluator. However, because the unusual nature of this particular project has a bearing upon the way in which the issues arose and were perceived, it is first necessary to mention some of its features

The analysis of discourse as evaluation of productive thinking

This paper provides a thorough description of a method of analyzing and scoring group discussions from a particular point of view. After discussing shortcomings of traditional methods of reporting data from group discussions and problems inherent in the use of paper-and-pencil creativity tests, the author describes a method which was developed as a part of the CORT Thinking Project (Cambridge, England). The method calls for the listing of points made in discussion as both rows and columns in a matrix, and using the cells of the matrix to record relationships among points. Columns tallies are then made for various categories such as example, judgment, digression, etc. After this matrix is completed, a scoring matrix is developed. The construction of the scoring matrix is a difficult step in the evaluation. New scoring matrices must be developed for each discussion topic

Life in a tenured (curriculum) position

Significantly, none of the four authors who wrote on this topic in the previous issue of this journal began by working from a definition of curriculum. How can one possibly begin to discuss curriculum theorizing without at least the attempt to establish what it is one is theorizing about? The omission is significant, not because it is in any way a culpability, but because it indicates a particular stance toward both curriculum and theory, underlying which is the assumption that curriculum theorists not only know precisely what curriculum is but also that they all agree upon it, and that thus it is uncontested and unproblematic. Such a view makes it unnecessary to proceed from notions of what it is that has been theorized, hence the omission, in spite of very good evidence to the contrary (Simpson, 1981 )

The use of the CoRT thinking project with exceptional children: Some outcomes of the U.K. evaluation

The most common means of making a new project or teaching approach relevant to a particular group of pupils is to provide a rationale relating the problems to a solution or "best fit". I have attempted such a rationale elsewhere (Tripp, 1976) based upon needs of the child and the possibilities of self-actualisation. What I wish to do here is to show some of the effects of the project upon slow learners. The data reported was collected between 1973 and 1975 when I was performing the UK evaluation of the project