Study Sites.

<p>Study sites in Ecuador utilized for carbon estimations.</p

Global and Ecuadorian aquaculture and shrimp aquaculture growth [22, 24, 25].

<p>Fig. 1 (top panel) depicts the global growth in aquaculture from a nominal amount in 1970 to greater than 90 million t in 2012. Figure 1 (lower panel) depicts the growth rate of shrimp aquaculture in Ecuador from approximately 200 million USD in 1984 to approximately 1.4 billion USD in 2012.</p

Mangrove CC levels vs. IPCC CC levels.

<p>We report the median value of our findings closest to the year 2000 and the IPCC compliant findings for 2000. The MPD represents the Minimum Potential Difference when error bars are taken into account selecting the Equation <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0118880#pone.0118880.e001" target="_blank">1</a>–<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0118880#pone.0118880.e004" target="_blank">4</a> that is closest to the IPCC measure.</p><p>Mangrove CC levels vs. IPCC CC levels.</p

CC losses from areas delineated as mangrove forest in the initial survey.

<p>Each column represents a method of calculation from Equation <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0118880#pone.0118880.e001" target="_blank">1</a>–<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0118880#pone.0118880.e004" target="_blank">4</a>. The final two columns are the mid value of the four equations and the mean value of the four equations. Units are t of C.</p><p>CC losses from areas delineated as mangrove forest in the initial survey.</p

CC levels pre-aquaculture, CC losses from pre-aquaculture to 2011, CC lose attributable to aquaculture, and CC gains due to afforestation or reforestation).

<p>All values reported are mid-range values with the error bars representing the minimum and maximum calculated values under equations <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0118880#pone.0118880.e001" target="_blank">1</a>–<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0118880#pone.0118880.e004" target="_blank">4</a>.</p

Fluid Borders: Rethinking Historical Geography and Fixed Map Boundaries in Contested Regions

<div><p>This article introduces a quantitative methodology for analyzing contested map borders. The article applies the new analytical technique to a data set of thirty maps showing Bulgaria in ca. 800 CE, a disputed state and period in medieval historiography with relevance to modern national politics and territorial claims. Based on the data set, we generate a series of new maps that make explicit the fluid medieval boundaries and general disagreement among geographers and historiographers. Our analysis begins with a simple point-in-polygon procedure to create a majority map that depicts the points included within the borders of the Bulgarian polity in sixteen or more of the maps (>50 percent). The majority map is then combined with percentage maps, confidence interval map boundaries, and cluster maps. The confidence interval maps are created via a spatial bootstrapping procedure and measure the uncertainty in the majority map. The cluster maps are developed via a radial basis function and provide insight into the potential affectivity based on the cartographers' countries of origin. The final map reflects the general modern consensus of the borders of the Bulgarian polity around 800 CE. Besides its quantitative contribution to medieval and modern cartographic, historiographical, and political debates, this article has developed a widely applicable methodology for synthesizing map borders and territories in cases of cartographic disagreement.</p></div

The Carbon Holdings of Northern Ecuador's Mangrove Forests

<p>Within a geographic information systems environment, we combine field measures of mangrove tree diameter, mangrove species distribution, and mangrove tree density with remotely sensed measures of mangrove location and mangrove canopy cover to estimate the mangrove carbon holdings of northern Ecuador. We find that the four northern estuaries of Ecuador contain approximately 7,742,999 t (±15.47 percent) of standing carbon. Of particularly high carbon holdings are the <i>Rhizophora mangle</i>–dominated mangrove stands found in and around the Cayapas-Mataje Ecological Reserve in northern Esmeraldas Province, Ecuador, and certain stands of <i>Rhizophora mangle</i> in and around the Isla Corazón y Fragata Wildlife Refuge in central Manabí Province, Ecuador. Our field-driven mangrove carbon estimate is higher than all but one of the comparison models evaluated. We find that basic latitudinal mangrove carbon models performed at least as well, if not better, than the more complex species-based allometric models in predicting standing carbon levels. In addition, we find that improved results occur when multiple models are combined as opposed to relying on any one single model for mangrove carbon estimates. The high level of carbon contained in these mangrove forests, combined with the future atmospheric carbon sequestration potential they offer, makes it a necessity that they are included in any future payment for ecosystem services strategy aimed at using forest systems to offset CO₂ emissions and mitigate predicted CO₂-driven temperature increases.</p