Both the “dipping” and “straw-sucking” techniques entailed the same tool (straw-tube), the same target (juice), and exactly the same location (small hole).

<p>Actually in the scene depicted in this photo, the chimpanzee thereafter retrieved the tube and licked its tip (“dipping”).</p

Switch in tube-use techniques from “dipping” to “straw-sucking”.

<p>Note: Individual: condition where each participant was tested individually; Paired: condition where each participant was tested with the conspecific “straw-sucking” demonstrator (1: together in a booth with two juice bottles; 2: separated in two adjacent booths each equipped with a juice bottle); D: “dipping” technique; S: “straw-sucking” technique; “DS”: firstly “dipping” technique, and then “straw-sucking” technique after observing the demonstrator's straw-sucking; -: no try; trials highlighted in grey indicate that a participant observed the demonstrator's “straw-sucking” within a distance of 50 cm.</p

Two opposing calibrations of simultaneity in audiovisual (B) and tactile (C) temporal order judgments.

<p>(A) Examples of biased distribution of stimulation intervals: Gaussian distributions with positive (red dashed) and negative (blue solid) peaks. Positive interval shows “light first” in audiovisual, and “right hand first” in tactile temporal order judgments. (B,C) Opposing shifts of psychometric functions under the biased distributions in audiovisual (B) and tactile temporal order judgments (C). The probability of “light first” (B) and “right hand first” (C) judgments (ordinate) is plotted against the stimulation interval (abscissa; stimulus onset asynchronies, SOAs). Note that the point of simultaneity, as indicated by the intersection of a psychometric function with P  =  0.5, shifted toward the peak of each Gaussian distribution in audiovisual (B, lag adaptation) but away from the peak in tactile temporal order judgments (C, Bayesian calibration). (D) A serial model for lag adaptation and Bayesian calibration. The order of the two systems could be the other way around. A constant time lag between a sound-light pair is adjusted before (or after) the signals enter Bayesian calibration mechanism. (E) Predictions of shifts in the mixed condition (second experiment). Six predictions are shown in a two-by-three factorial manner according to whether lag adaptation was pitch-specific or not (rows), and whether Bayesian calibration existed, existed but was not pitch-specific, or was pitch-specific (columns). Note that the point of simultaneity is expected to move away from the Gaussian peak only when Bayesian calibration is working in a pitch-specific manner, but lag adaptation is not pitch-specific (second row, third column).</p

Two opposing calibrations of simultaneity in audiovisual temporal order judgments.

<p>(A, B) SOAs between a light stimulus and a tone pip (1046 or 1480 Hz) were sampled from one of two Gaussian distributions, one biased toward sound-first intervals (mean, −80 ms; squares and blue solid curves) and the other toward light-first intervals (mean, +80 ms; open circles and red dashed curves). The two tones were associated with different distributions (sound-first or light-first), and were alternated in blocks of 100 trials in the first experiment (A), but intermingled in the second experiment (B, mixed condition). (C) Shifts in the point of simultaneity in the first experiment, favoring lag adaptation. Each symbol represents 64–640 judgments from eight participants, totaling 6,400 trials. Trial numbers for each symbol are shown in (A). (D) Shifts in the point of simultaneity in the mixed condition (Experiment 2), favoring Bayesian calibration. Each symbol represents 192–1,920 judgments from eight participants, totaling 19,200 trials. Blue and red curves in C and D show the results of model fitting for the pooled data from all participants (maximum likelihood estimation).</p

Shifts in the point of simultaneity calculated for each individual participants.

<p>Each panel shows data from Experiment 1 (A), 2 (B), 3 (C), and 4 (D). Note that all participants yielded data in agreement with lag adaptation in Experiment 1 (A), but all participants yielded those in agreement with Bayesian calibration in Experiment 2 (B) and 4 (D).</p

Shifts in the point of simultaneity in the Experiment 4, again favoring Bayesian calibration.

<p>In the experiment, each test stimuli was delivered after 6–10 adaptation stimuli, SOAs of which were sampled from −235 ms or +235 ms. Each symbol represents 72 judgments from six participants. Curves show the results of model fitting for the pooled data from all participants.</p

Protein Phosphatase 1ß Limits Ring Canal Constriction during <i>Drosophila</i> Germline Cyst Formation

<div><p>Germline cyst formation is essential for the propagation of many organisms including humans and flies. The cytoplasm of germline cyst cells communicate with each other directly via large intercellular bridges called ring canals. Ring canals are often derived from arrested contractile rings during incomplete cytokinesis. However how ring canal formation, maintenance and growth are regulated remains unclear. To better understand this process, we carried out an unbiased genetic screen in <i>Drosophila melanogaster</i> germ cells and identified multiple alleles of <i>flapwing</i> (<i>flw</i>), a conserved serine/threonine-specific protein phosphatase. Flw had previously been reported to be unnecessary for early <i>D. melanogaster</i> oogenesis using a hypomorphic allele. We found that loss of Flw leads to over-constricted nascent ring canals and subsequently tiny mature ring canals, through which cytoplasmic transfer from nurse cells to the oocyte is impaired, resulting in small, non-functional eggs. Flw is expressed in germ cells undergoing incomplete cytokinesis, completely colocalized with the <i>Drosophila</i> myosin binding subunit of myosin phosphatase (DMYPT). This colocalization, together with genetic interaction studies, suggests that Flw functions together with DMYPT to negatively regulate myosin activity during ring canal formation. The identification of two subunits of the tripartite myosin phosphatase as the first two main players required for ring canal constriction indicates that tight regulation of myosin activity is essential for germline cyst formation and reproduction in <i>D. melanogaster</i> and probably other species as well.</p></div

Mapping of <i>XE55</i> mutations.

<p>(<b>A</b>) Molecular nature of various <i>flw</i> mutations. Genomic annotation of <i>flw</i> is shown on the top, with the exons boxed. <i>flw⁷</i> is a <i>P</i>-element insertion in the 5′ untranslated region. <i>flw-YFP-159</i> and <i>flw-YFP-284</i> are two intronic <i>PiggyBac</i> yellow fluorescence protein trap lines. All other mutations are EMS-induced coding mutations. The three non-coding mutations are shown in the genomic map, while the coding mutations are shown in the annotated proteins. Protein regions shared between Flw-pA and Flw-pB are in blue. The Flw-pA-specific region is in grey. Amino acids are named with single letters. Positions according to the short isoform Flw-pB are in parentheses. Nonsense mutations are in red. <i>flw¹</i>, <i>flw⁶</i>, <i>flw⁷</i>, <i>flw-YFP-159</i>, <i>flw-YFP-284</i>, and <i>flw^FP41</i> have been described previously <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0070502#pone.0070502-Raghavan1" target="_blank">[23]</a>–<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0070502#pone.0070502-Sun1" target="_blank">[25]</a>, <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0070502#pone.0070502-Rees1" target="_blank">[28]</a>. Flw translation start and stop codons are indicated on the genomic map with green and red lines, respectively. The enzyme active site and the DMYPT binding site of Flw predictions are based on the Conserved Domain Database, which consists of a collection of well-annotated multiple sequence alignment models for full-length proteins (<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Structure/cdd/cdd.shtml" target="_blank">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Structure/cdd/cdd.shtml</a>). (<b>B</b>) Flw mutations alter conserved residues. Protein sequence alignment of the short peptide pB of <i>D. melanogaster</i> Flw with PP1ß from Zebrafish (<i>Danio rerio)</i>, Frog (<i>Xenopus tropicalis</i>), Mouse (<i>Mus musculus</i>), Dog (<i>Canis lupus familiaris)</i> and Human (<i>Homo sapiens</i>). The amino acids mutated in Flw are boxed. Amino acid substitutes are included below each corresponding mutation, with “*”s indicate stop codons. Amino acids common to the majority of organisms are shown above the position lines and represented with dots in the alignment. Note that PP1ß is highly conserved across phylogeny, with only one amino acid difference between human PP1ß and <i>Xenopus</i> PP1ß or mouse PP1ß. The alignment was done using DNAStar software.</p

Homozygous GLCs of <i>XE55</i> mutations cause over-constriction of Anillin-stained ring canals during IC.

<p>Confocal images of part of germaria co-immunostained with antibodies against anillin (green) and α-spectrin (red). All cysts are at stage IVg, the sixth stage of the 4^th mitotic division. Homozygous germline clones are outlined with dashed lines. The mitotic origins of ring canals are labeled with 1, 2, 3, or 4 for the 1^st, 2^nd, 3^rd, or 4^th mitotic division. The unmeasurable ring canals are marked with asterisks. (<b>A</b>) Heterozygous <i>XE55A</i>. (<b>B</b>) Wild-type (<i>OreR</i>). (<b>C–G</b>) Homozygous XE55s: <i>XE55A</i> (C), <i>XE55B</i> (D), <i>XE55C</i> (E), <i>XE55D</i> (F), or <i>XE55E</i> (G). (<b>H</b>) Homozygous <i>flw^FP41</i>. Note that homozygous <i>XE55s</i> (C–G) and <i>flw^FP41</i> (H) in germ cells caused formation of small ring canals. Two normal M4 ring canals from heterozygous <i>XE55B</i> (D, right) and one normal M2 ring canal from heterozygous <i>XE55D</i> (F, left) were also labeled for comparison. The genotypes for the heterozygous XE55s in this and all the following figures are <i>XE55^mutation</i>/<i>ubi-RFP^NLS hsFlp¹²² FRT19A</i>. All panels have the same magnification. Scale bar: 2 µm.</p

Audiovisual temporal order judgments without bias of stimulation intervals (Experiment 3).

<p>Each symbol represents 192–2,304 judgments from eight participants, totaling 19,200 trials. A black curve shows the result of model fitting for the pooled data from all participants.</p