Soil Moisture Measuring Techniques and Factors Affecting the Moisture Dynamics: A Comprehensive Review

The amount of surface soil moisture (SSM) is a crucial ecohydrological natural resource that regulates important land surface processes. It affects critical land–atmospheric phenomena, including the division of energy and water (infiltration, runoff, and evaporation), that impacts the effectiveness of agricultural output (sensible and latent heat fluxes and surface air temperature). Despite its significance, there are several difficulties in making precise measurements, monitoring, and interpreting SSM at high spatial and temporal resolutions. The current study critically reviews the methods and procedures for calculating SSM and the variables influencing measurement accuracy and applicability under different fields, climates, and operational conditions. For laboratory and field measurements, this study divides SSM estimate strategies into (i) direct and (ii) indirect procedures. The accuracy and applicability of a technique depends on the environment and the resources at hand. Comparative research is geographically restricted, although precise and economical—direct measuring techniques like the gravimetric method are time-consuming and destructive. In contrast, indirect methods are more expensive and do not produce measurements at the spatial scale but produce precise data on a temporal scale. While measuring SSM across more significant regions, ground-penetrating radar and remote sensing methods are susceptible to errors caused by overlapping data and atmospheric factors. On the other hand, soft computing techniques like machine/deep learning are quite handy for estimating SSM without any technical or laborious procedures. We determine that factors, e.g., topography, soil type, vegetation, climate change, groundwater level, depth of soil, etc., primarily influence the SSM measurements. Different techniques have been put into practice for various practical situations, although comparisons between them are not available frequently in publications. Each method offers a unique set of potential advantages and disadvantages. The most accurate way of identifying the best soil moisture technique is the value selection method (VSM). The neutron probe is preferable to the FDR or TDR sensor for measuring soil moisture. Remote sensing techniques have filled the need for large-scale, highly spatiotemporal soil moisture monitoring. Through self-learning capabilities in data-scarce areas, machine/deep learning approaches facilitate soil moisture measurement and prediction

An Integrated Image Encryption Scheme Based on Elliptic Curve

Due to the extensive demand for digital images across all fields, the security of multimedia data over insecure networks is a challenging task. The majority of the existing modern encryption schemes are merely developed that ensure the confidentiality of the image data. This manuscript presents a new image encryption scheme that ensures confidentiality, user authentications, and secure key sharing among the communicating parties. Initially, the users share a secret parameter using Diffie-Hellman over the elliptic curve and pass it through SHA-256. Afterwards, the proposed scheme uses the first 128-bits for the confidentiality of the data, while the remaining 128-bits are for authentication. In the encryption algorithm, the confusion module is achieved by affine power affine transformation. At the same time, the diffusion module is attained through highly nonlinear sequences, which are generated through the elliptic curve. Experimental testing and the latest available security tools are used to verify the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm. The simulation findings and the comparison of the proposed scheme with the existing image encryption techniques reveal that the suggested scheme offers a sufficient degree of security. Furthermore, the outcome of the simulation results divulges several advantages of the proposed scheme, including a large key space, resistance to differential attacks, high efficiency, and strong statistical performance

Band engineering of BiOBr based materials for photocatalytic wastewater treatment via advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) – A review

Semiconductor based photocatalysts have been an efficient technology for water and wastewater remediation, addressing the concepts of green chemistry and sustainable development. Owing to narrow and suitable band structure, BiOBr is a promising candidate for efficient wastewater treatment via photocatalysis. Enhancement of photocatalytic properties can be obtained by various techniques like doping, element rich strategy, facet engineering, and defect control. This review primarily focuses on the band engineering of single BiOBr, its binary, ternary composites and their applications in degradation of hazardous pollutants in wastewater. Moreover, current challenges and future perspectives were discussed along with concluding comments

Establishment of Crop Water Stress Index for Sustainable Wheat Production under Climate Change in a Semi-Arid Region of Pakistan

The Crop Water Stress Index (CWSI) is a useful tool for evaluating irrigation scheduling and achieving water conservation and crop yield goals. This study examined the CWSI under different water stress conditions for the scheduling of wheat crop irrigation and developed indices using the leaf canopy temperature in Faisalabad, Pakistan. The experiments were conducted using a randomized, complete block design and four irrigation treatments with deficit levels of D0%, D20%, and D40% from the field capacity (FC) and D100% (100% deficit level). The CWSI was determined at pre-heading and post-heading stages through the lower baseline (fully watered crop) and upper limit (maximum stress). These baselines were computed using the air temperature and canopy temperature of plant leaves and the vapor pressure deficit (VPD). The CWSI for each irrigation treatment was calculated and the average seasonal CWSI value for the whole season was used to develop the empirical relationships for scheduling irrigation. The relationships between the air canopy temperatures and the VPD resulted in slope (x) = −0.735 and interception (c) = −0.8731 as well as x = −0.5143 and c = −1.273 at the pre- and post-heading stages, respectively. The values of the CWSI for the treatment at deficit levels of D0%, D20%, D40%, and D100% were found to be 0.08, 0.61, 0.20, and 0.64, respectively. The CWSI values developed in this study can be effectively used to promote better the monitoring of irrigated wheat crops in the region

Establishment of Crop Water Stress Index for Sustainable Wheat Production under Climate Change in a Semi-Arid Region of Pakistan

The Crop Water Stress Index (CWSI) is a useful tool for evaluating irrigation scheduling and achieving water conservation and crop yield goals. This study examined the CWSI under different water stress conditions for the scheduling of wheat crop irrigation and developed indices using the leaf canopy temperature in Faisalabad, Pakistan. The experiments were conducted using a randomized, complete block design and four irrigation treatments with deficit levels of D0%, D20%, and D40% from the field capacity (FC) and D100% (100% deficit level). The CWSI was determined at pre-heading and post-heading stages through the lower baseline (fully watered crop) and upper limit (maximum stress). These baselines were computed using the air temperature and canopy temperature of plant leaves and the vapor pressure deficit (VPD). The CWSI for each irrigation treatment was calculated and the average seasonal CWSI value for the whole season was used to develop the empirical relationships for scheduling irrigation. The relationships between the air canopy temperatures and the VPD resulted in slope (x) = −0.735 and interception (c) = −0.8731 as well as x = −0.5143 and c = −1.273 at the pre- and post-heading stages, respectively. The values of the CWSI for the treatment at deficit levels of D0%, D20%, D40%, and D100% were found to be 0.08, 0.61, 0.20, and 0.64, respectively. The CWSI values developed in this study can be effectively used to promote better the monitoring of irrigated wheat crops in the region

Inoculation with the endophyte Piriformospora indica significantly affects mechanisms involved in osmotic stress in rice

Abstract Background Rice is a drought susceptible crop. A symbiotic association between rice and mycorrhizal fungi could effectively protect the plant against sudden or frequent episodes of drought. Due to its extensive network of hyphae, the endophyte is able to deeply explore the soil and transfer water and minerals to the plant, some of them playing an important role in mitigating the effects of drought stress. Moreover, the endophyte could modify the expression of drought responsive genes and regulate antioxidants. Results Three rice genotypes, WC-297 (drought tolerant), Caawa (moderately drought tolerant) and IR-64 (drought susceptible) were inoculated with Piriformospora indica (P. indica), a dynamic endophyte. After 20 days of co-cultivation with the fungus, rice seedlings were subjected to 15% polyethylene glycol-6000 induced osmotic stress. P. indica improved the growth of rice seedlings. It alleviated the destructive effects of the applied osmotic stress. This symbiotic association increased seedling biomass, the uptake of phosphorus and zinc, which are functional elements for rice growth under drought stress. It boosted the chlorophyll fluorescence, increased the production of proline and improved the total antioxidant capacity in leaves. The association with the endophyte also up regulated the activity of the Pyrroline-5-carboxylate synthase (P5CS), which is critical for the synthesis of proline. Conclusion A mycorrhizal association between P. indica and rice seedlings provided a multifaceted protection to rice plants under osmotic stress (− 0.295 MPa)

Identification and characterization of salt stress-responsive NHX gene family in chickpea

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is an important legume crop, primarily grown in the arid and semi-arid regions. It is a valuable protein source and rich in minerals, especially calcium and phosphorus. Salinity stress adversely affects chickpea germination, vegetative growth, and reproductive activities. The Na+/H+ exchanger (NHX), a gene family of membrane transporters, is well recognized for inducing salt tolerance in plants. The NHXs assist in maintaining ion and pH homeostasis in cells by exchanging K+ or Na+ for H+. This study was designed to identify and characterize the NHX genes for salt stress responsiveness in chickpea. Eight NHX genes were identified in chickpea. The phylogenetic analysis represented the evolutionary relationship of Cicer arietinum NHXs (CarNHXs) with Glycine max, Medicago truncatula, Lotus japonicus, Phaseolus vulgaris, Lens culinaris, Vigna unguiculata, and Oryza sativa. The in-silico gene expression analysis indicated high expression of CarNHX3 (Ca_19073) and CarNHX7 (Ca_02050) under salt stress. The qRT-PCR further validated that the expression of CarNHX3 and CarNHX7 increased when plants were exposed to salt stress. This study provides a way forward to plan functional research to exploit CarNHX genes to enhance salt-tolerance in chickpea

Appraisal of Trans Indus, Marwat-Khisor and Bhittani Ranges Thrusting through Geo-spatial Techniques

Himalayan mountain belt was created by the Indo–Eurasian collision. The length of this seismically active mountain belt is almost 2500 km. Southern partition of this zone is marked by the main frontal thrust. We computed the isobase, relative relief, incision, vertical dissection and drainage density maps of the study site. Drainage density is inversely proportional to the rest of computed parameters. Drainage density is less where the incision/deep cutting is high. Pezu and north western parts of the study site are observed vulnerable to tectonic activity and high risks. These sites are the adjoining parts of active faults. The rates of morphological changes and the combination of stripping processes are determined through Surface dynamics maps (SDM). Although it is a handy tool used to evaluate erosion conditions of sags or sub basins. Remote sensing and GIS techniques proved efficient for appraisal of thrust in Marwat Kishore and Bhittani ranges. Full Tex