The male attitude norms inventory-II: A measure of masculinity ideology in South Africa

This article describes the development of the Male Attitude Norms Inventory-II (MANI II). Empirical findings and theoretical debate contributed toward the development of a measure of South African masculinity ideology. Three hundred and thirty-nine male participants, drawn from universities across greater Cape Town, were included in the study. Exploratory factor analysis rendered a three-factor model of traditional masculinity. This accounted for 31.44 percent of total item variance. Results informed the development of a Total Scale ( α = 0.90)as well as three subscale measures (Toughness, α = 0.81; Control, α = 0.82; and Sexuality, α = 0.85). The MANI-II displayed satisfactory convergent validity with the Male Role Norms Inventory (MRNI) (r = 0.84; p < 0.001). The MANI-II and MRNI subscales were also meaningfully interrelated. The MANI-II offers a contextually sensitive and multidimensional measure of masculinities. Future research should include a representative sample, establish test-retest reliability, and further examine total and subscale construct validity

Representation of gender in South African television advertising: A content analysis

This paper examines how gender is represented in South African television advertising. It provides a foundation upon which changes in representation over time may be mapped; contributes toward a cross-national literature that considers differences in representation; and tentatively examines how representations intersect with other key social categories. A sample of 5,803 advertisements was collected during 2003 that included 1,633 primary visual actors and 2,350 narrators. These were analysed by means of content analysis. A coding scheme was developed that was partly based on existing research, including McArthur and Resko’s (1975) influential study, but also research within non-Western contexts. Content categories included attributes of the primary visual actor (i.e., age; portrayal; race; and social class) as well as advertisement attributes (i.e., actors; primary narrator; products; and setting). Hypotheses predicted that males and females would be represented differently in television advertisements and that these differences would reflect traditional hierarchical relations in society. Findings largely supported these hypotheses. Males were represented as dominant. They were of primary focus; appeared most frequently within the socially valued public-work arena; and were represented as occupying positions of greater social authority. Females were represented as subordinate. They were of secondary focus; appeared most frequently within the socially undervalued private-domestic arena; and were most often represented as occupying positions of social subordination. This subordination was reinforced through findings that imply their sexualisation. Interesting patterns also emerged in findings indicating possible change in representations of gender. The implications of findings are discussed and suggestions for future research are made

Masculinities Representations Inventory (MRI, English Version): A measure of gender (re)presentation

This article introduces the Masculinities Representations Inventory (MRI), English version, as a multidimensional measure of gender (re)presentation. It provides structural, convergent, and divergent validity, as well as reliability evidence, in support of its use among English speakers in South Africa. Principal components analysis with a male student sample (n = 319) confirms the measure’s construct multidimensionality. Three factors inform a 29-item total- and subscale measure, including dominant Representations of Othering (Anti-Effeminacy and Homo-Negativity), Responsibility (Dependability and Success), and Control (Dominance and Toughness). Evidence of convergent validity is seen in predicted patterns of correlation between MRI scale scores and those of the Male Role Norms Inventory as well as Gender Role Conflict Scales. Evidence of divergent validity is apparent in nonsignificant correlations, in all but one case (Masculinity), with the Personal Attributes Questionnaire scale scores

Constructing hegemonic masculinities in South Africa: The discourse and rhetoric of heteronormativity

This paper considers how local and regional representations of hegemonic masculinity are (re)produced, and how men’s gender identities are constituted through situated interaction in South Africa. It points toward the important role played by the discourse and rhetoric of heteronormativity among these men in hegemonic sense-making, and in particular, the underlying discursive practices of performative/intimate (hetero)sexuality and homosexual rejection/acceptance. An attempt is made to account for complexity and diversity in this sense-making across intersecting social categories such as ethnicity and social class. Focus group discussion among Afrikaans, English and Xhosa men was transcribed and back- translated where necessary. A technique of discourse analysis that considers the rhetorical aspects of text is developed through the introduction of norm-referencing rhetorical devices. Findings highlight the extent to which practices of both compliance and resistance contribute toward the (re)production of masculinities

Diversity in gender and visual representation: an introduction

This Special Issue builds upon key arguments that emerged during the course of an interdisciplinary conference that was hosted by the Centre for Gender Studies (University of Winchester, UK) in September 2012. The conference, themed ‘Gender and Visual Representation’, aimed to encourage and develop understanding concerning the social category of gender, the concept of visual representation and their relationship. In doing so, it hoped not only to bring people together with an interest in this field, but also to stimulate discussion within and between disciplines, research paradigms and methods. An added emphasis on ‘real world’ issues sought to inspire and contribute towards broader feminist activism

Societies in transition: are they more sexist? A comparison between Polish, South African and British samples

This study investigates ambivalent sexism to women in student samples from two under-researched transitional countries, Poland (PL) and South Africa (SA), in comparison with the United Kingdom. Based on ambivalent sexism theory (AST), and in light of socio-economic context, it was hypothesised that: (1) the sample in PL and SA would be more hostile- and benevolent-sexist than the sample from the UK, (2) males would exhibit more hostile attitudes than females irrespective of country and (3) males would outscore females on benevolent attitudes in the relatively liberal UK but underscore them in relatively conservative SA. The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory was used to measure benevolent and hostile sexism. The findings largely supported the hypotheses. The participants in SA and PL were more sexist than in the UK and men were more hostile-sexist than women in all three countries. However, males outscored females on benevolent sexism not only in the UK but also in SA and PL. Moreover, the sample from PL was observed to be more sexist than the sample from SA. The findings are discussed in light of AST and the countries' transitional context

Beyond traditional understanding of gender measurement: the gender (re)presentation approach

This paper considers different approaches to measuring gender. It critically reviews gender role theorising and describes how this has informed two approaches to measuring gender as an individual phenomenon: gender orientation (the assessment of individual traits) and gender ideology (assessing individual endorsement, and internalisation, of social norms). It is argued here that social constructionist perspectives offer a viable alternative to gender role theory and that these inform an alternative approach to measuring gender as a social phenomenon: gender (re)presentation. This approach assesses group level endorsement of dominant gender representations. Endorsement is not seen to reflect individual traits or internalised social norms. Rather, it is understood as a social practice, made meaningful through shared understanding of dominant gender representation. This approach is introduced through a critique of the traditional concept of attitudes and a reformulation thereof. The practical measurement implications and benefit of this reformulation are outlined

Ambivalence toward men: comparing sexism among Polish, South African and British university students

This study extends the literature on attitudes toward gender roles by exploring whether the nature of sexism (i.e., benevolence and hostility directed at men) differs among university students from two under-researched countries, Poland (n = 190) and South Africa (n = 188), in a comparison with students in the United Kingdom (n = 166). Based on empirical literature applying Ambivalent Sexism Theory, and in the light of the socio-political context, it was hypothesized that: (1) both hostile and benevolent attitudes toward men in Poland would be more liberal than in South Africa and more conservative than in the United Kingdom, and (2), women would exhibit more hostile but less benevolent attitudes than men in relatively more conservative South Africa. The Ambivalence to Men Inventory was used to measure the two types of sexist attitudes about men. Findings supported the first hypothesis for hostile attitudes and partially for benevolent attitudes. South African and Polish students were more benevolent and hostile to men than British students, and students from South Africa were more hostile than those from Poland. Moreover, as predicted, a significant country-by-gender interaction revealed that South African women had more hostile and less benevolent attitudes to men than South African men. No such gender gap was present in the case of hostile attitudes in Poland and benevolent attitudes in the United Kingdom. Findings are discussed in terms of Ambivalent Sexism Theory and the countries’ socio-cultural context

Political masculinities, crisis tendencies, and social transition: Toward an understanding of change

This introduction to the special issue on “Political Masculinities and Social Transition” rethinks the notion of “crisis in masculinity” and points to its weaknesses, such as cyclical patterns and chronicity. Rather than viewing key moments in history as points of rupture, we understand social change as encompassing ongoing transitions marked by a “fluid nature” (Montecinos 2017, 2). In line with this, the contributions examine how political masculinities are implicated within a wide range of social transitions, such as nation building after war, the founding of a new political party in response to an economic crisis, an “authoritarian relapse” of a democracy, attempts at changing society through terrorism, rapid industrialization as well as peace building in conflict areas. Building on Starck and Sauer’s definition of “political masculinities” we suggest applying the concept to instances in which power is explicitly either being (re)produced or challenged. We distinguish between political masculinities that are more readily identified as such (e.g., professional politicians) and less readily identified political masculinities (e.g., citizens), emphasizing how these interact with each other. We ask whether there is a discernible trajectory in the characteristics of political masculinities brought about by social transition that can be confirmed across cultures. The contributors’ findings indicate that these political masculinities can contribute to different kinds of change that either maintain the status quo, are progressive, retrogressive, or a mixture of these. Revolutionary transitions, it seems, often promote the adherence to traditional forms of political masculinity, whereas more reformatory transition leaves discursive spaces for argument