Bacterial lipid composition and the antimicrobial efficacy of cationic steroid compounds (Ceragenins)

AbstractCeragenins are cationic bile salt derivatives having antimicrobial activity. The interactions of several ceragenins with phospholipid bilayers were tested in different systems. The ceragenins are capable of forming specific associations with several phospholipid species that may be involved with their antimicrobial action. Their antimicrobial activity is lower in bacteria that have a high content of phosphatidylethanolamine. Gram negative bacteria with a high content of phosphatidylethanolamine exhibit sensitivity to different ceragenins that corresponds to the extent of interaction of these compounds with phospholipids, including the ability of different ceragenins to induce leakage of aqueous contents from phosphatidylethanolamine-rich liposomes. A second class of bacteria having cell membranes composed largely of anionic lipids and having a low content of phosphatidylethanolamine are very sensitive to the action of the ceragenins but they exhibit similar minimal inhibitory concentrations with most of the ceragenins and for different strains of bacteria. Although Gram negative bacteria generally have a high content of phosphatidylethanolamine, there are a few exceptions. In addition, a mutant strain of Escherichia coli has been made that is essentially devoid of phophatidylethanolamine, although 80% of the lipid of the wild-type strain is phosphatidylethanolamine. Furthermore, certain Gram positive bacteria are also exceptions in that they can have a high content of phosphatidylethanolamine. We find that the antimicrobial action of the ceragenins correlates better with the content of phosphatidylethanolamine in the bacterial membrane than whether or not the bacteria has an outer membrane. Thus, the bacterial lipid composition can be an important factor in determining the sensitivity of bacteria to antimicrobial agents

Membrane fusion activity of vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein G is induced by low pH but not by heat or denaturant

AbstractThe fusogenic envelope glycoprotein G of the rhabdovirus vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) induces membrane fusion at acidic pH. At acidic pH the G protein undergoes a major structural reorganization leading to the fusogenic conformation. However, unlike other viral fusion proteins, the low-pH-induced conformational change of VSV G is completely reversible. As well, the presence of an α-helical coiled-coil motif required for fusion by a number of viral and cellular fusion proteins was not predicted in VSV G protein by using a number of algorithms. Results of pH dependence of the thermal stability of G protein as determined by intrinsic Trp fluorescence and circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy show that the G protein is equally stable at neutral or acidic pH. Destabilization of G structure at neutral pH with either heat or urea did not induce membrane fusion or conformational change(s) leading to membrane fusion. Taken together, these data suggest that the mechanism of VSV G-induced fusion is distinct from the fusion mechanism of fusion proteins that involve a coiled-coil motif

Inhibition of HIV-1 endocytosis allows lipid mixing at the plasma membrane, but not complete fusion

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>We recently provided evidence that HIV-1 enters HeLa-derived TZM-bl and lymphoid CEMss cells by fusing with endosomes, whereas its fusion with the plasma membrane does not proceed beyond the lipid mixing step. The mechanism of restriction of HIV-1 fusion at the cell surface and/or the factors that aid the virus entry from endosomes remain unclear.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>We examined HIV-1 fusion with a panel of target cells lines and with primary CD4⁺T cells. Kinetic measurements of fusion combined with time-resolved imaging of single viruses further reinforced the notion that HIV-1 enters the cells <it>via </it>endocytosis and fusion with endosomes. Furthermore, we attempted to deliberately redirect virus fusion to the plasma membrane, using two experimental strategies. First, the fusion reaction was synchronized by pre-incubating the viruses with cells at reduced temperature to allow CD4 and coreceptors engagement, but not the virus uptake or fusion. Subsequent shift to a physiological temperature triggered accelerated virus uptake followed by entry from endosomes, but did not permit fusion at the cell surface. Second, blocking HIV-1 endocytosis by a small-molecule dynamin inhibitor, dynasore, resulted in transfer of viral lipids to the plasma membrane without any detectable release of the viral content into the cytosol. We also found that a higher concentration of dynasore is required to block the HIV-endosome fusion compared to virus internalization.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>Our results further support the notion that HIV-1 enters disparate cell types through fusion with endosomes. The block of HIV-1 fusion with the plasma membrane at a post-lipid mixing stage shows that this membrane is not conducive to fusion pore formation and/or enlargement. The ability of dynasore to interfere with the virus-endosome fusion suggests that dynamin could be involved in two distinct steps of HIV-1 entry - endocytosis and fusion within intracellular compartments.</p

Aggregatibacter Actinomycetemcomitans Leukotoxin Utilizes a Cholesterol Recognition/Amino Acid Consensus Site for Membrane Association

Background: A repeats-in-toxin (RTX) leukotoxin and its integrin receptor aggregate in cholesterol-rich lipid rafts. Results: The affinity of the toxin to cholesterol is driven by a cholesterol recognition/amino acid consensus (CRAC) motif. Conclusion: Leukotoxin cytotoxicity is regulated by the CRAC motif. Significance: Other RTX toxins contain this CRAC motif, suggesting a role for cholesterol recognition in RTX cytolysis. © 2013 by The American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Inc

Aggregatibacter Actinomycetemcomitans Leukotoxin Cytotoxicity Occurs Through Bilayer Destabilization

The Gram-negative bacterium, Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, is a common inhabitant of the human upper aerodigestive tract. The organism produces an RTX (Repeats in ToXin) toxin (LtxA) that kills human white blood cells. LtxA is believed to be a membrane-damaging toxin, but details of the cell surface interaction for this and several other RTX toxins have yet to be elucidated. Initial morphological studies suggested that LtxA was bending the target cell membrane. Because the ability of a membrane to bend is a function of its lipid composition, we assessed the proficiency of LtxA to release of a fluorescent dye from a panel of liposomes composed of various lipids. Liposomes composed of lipids that form nonlamellar phases were susceptible to LtxA-induced damage while liposomes composed of lipids that do not form non-bilayer structures were not. Differential scanning calorimetry demonstrated that the toxin decreased the temperature at which the lipid transitions from a bilayer to a nonlamellar phase, while 31P nuclear magnetic resonance studies showed that the LtxA-induced transition from a bilayer to an inverted hexagonal phase occurs through the formation of an isotropic intermediate phase. These results indicate that LtxA cytotoxicity occurs through a process of membrane destabilization. © 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Thermal denaturation of influenza virus and its relationship to membrane fusion.

The X-31 strain of influenza virus was studied by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), CD and SDS/PAGE analysis as a function of both temperature and pH. A bromelain-treated virus was also studied by these methods. The major transition observed in the intact virus was a result of the denaturation of the haemagglutinin (HA) protein. At pH 7.4, this transition was similar in the intact virus and the isolated HA, but was absent in the bromelain-treated virus. However, at pH 5 the denaturation temperature and enthalpy were both higher for HA in the virus than in the isolated protein, indicating that HA interacts with other molecular components in the intact virus. The transition observed by DSC occurs at a higher temperature than does the thermal transition observed by CD. The temperature of the CD transition coincides with the temperature at which the fusogenicity of the virus increases, and probably corresponds to the formation of an extended coiled-coil conformation. Analysis by SDS/PAGE at neutral pH under non-reducing conditions demonstrates a selective loss of the HA protein trimer, resulting in the formation of aggregates in the range of temperatures of 55 to 70 degrees C. In contrast, at acidic pH, the HA protein is largely in the monomeric form at 25 degrees C, and there is little change with temperature. There is thus a weakening of the quaternary structure of HA at acidic pH prior to heating. At the temperature at which the virus exhibits an increased fusogenicity at neutral pH, there is a loss of secondary structure and a beginning of a destabilization of the trimeric form of HA. This temperature is lower than that required for the major endothermic peak observed in DSC experiments. The results demonstrate that there is no kinetically trapped high-energy form of HA at neutral pH