What experiences are needed to become a Division 1 Baseball, Football, or Track Athlete? A Retrospective Study of the Quantity of Deliberate Play

The acquisition of expert performance in various sports is generally attributed to the extended engagement in deliberate practice activities. Sport-specialization in high-school or earlier derives from the intent of developing sport expertise as well as the economic benefit of obtaining collegiate scholarships. Alternatively, sport-sampling allows for deliberate play. Deliberate play activities provide youths an opportunity to explore a variety of movements and tactics while encouraging innovation, improvisation, and the development of strategies. The influence of the family in the development of talent in sport is already established. Limited research exists that examines how deliberate practice activities in varied extracurricular activities throughout one’s youth contribute to performance in a particular sport. PURPOSE: Investigate the quantity of deliberate play that is required to become a collegiate division 1 athlete in the sports of baseball, football and track and field. METHODS: We used a structured online interview as proposed by Côté, Ericcson and Law (2005) to collect retrospective information. Fifty-one Division 1 collegiate athletes rated the daily activities they were involved when they were young as well as during their current period of development and assessed different factors that may have contributed to their current achievement level. RESULTS: Concerning early activities, 96% of the participants were involved in sports, 65% in musical, 17% in artistic, 72% in organized games with rules, and 48% in other sport-related activities (e.g. watching sports on television). In regards to physical factors that may have contributed to their exceptional athletic achievement, all participants’ height was average or above average when compared to peers and 78% sustained injuries that had adverse effect on their activity involvement. During their current stage of development, the participants tend to spend 26 hours per week sleeping, 10 hours eating, 10 hours socializing, 8 hours for school/career activities, and 8 hours studying. Lastly, although 75% of the athletes’ parents were not top athletes, 75% of them played a role and 86% were very involved when the participants first started in sport, and all parents were supportive/excited when their children decided to specialize in sports. CONCLUSION: The findings provide useful insights to all stakeholders (e.g., parents, coaches, inspiring collegiate athletes, athletic trainers, managers) in regards to developmental issues of D1 collegiate student-athletes, such as early sport and non-sport activity involvement, current daily activities, and the role of family. The developmental path of D1 student-athletes support Simon’s and Chase’s 10-year rule and Côté’s impact of family. Comparing the pattern of results in the developmental history between collegiate and professional and high-school and professional athletes should be included in the goals of future efforts

Handgrip Strength and VO2max Trends in Police Cadets: A Case Study

Among other components of physical fitness, performance on tactical tasks depends on cardiorespiratory endurance (CE) and muscular strength (MS). Police academies’ curriculum aim to increase cadets’ CE and MS, with males outscoring females in both tests. Curricula should assist cadets to adopt and adhere to a physically-active lifestyle while in the academy and upon graduation, for both health-related benefits and success in their tactical tasks. PURPOSE: To explore both CE-MS and sex trends between a four-year curriculum. METHODS: Retrospective data of 98 males and 79 females analyzed. Besides the senior year, cadets receive physical education classes. This serves as the foundation for adopting and adhering to physically-active lifestyle during their senior and postgraduation years by applying different training methods on their own. As part of their yearly evaluation, cadets completed a 12-min Cooper and a handgrip strength test. Estimated VO2max and absolute bilateral handgrip strength (HS) used as dependent variables. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) 4X2 for academic years and sex performed using SPSSÓ. RESULTS: Using Pillai’s trace, there was a significant effect of academic years, V=.09, F6,338=2.6, p=.02, η2 =.04 and sex, V=.80, F2,168=344.4,

The Effect of Sleep Quality and Being Physically Active on Developing Mental Toughness

Mental toughness (MT) has been increasingly associated with successful performance in several stressful and competitive environments (e.g. the military, business, academics, medicine, sports). Being physically active (PA) may compromise sleep quality (SQ). Research has reported conflicting associations regarding PA and MT. Regarding SQ and MT, a bidirectional association has been reported. However, research has not yet focused on the combined effects of PA and SQ on MT. PURPOSE: To characterize the association and the effects of PA and SQ on MT. The authors hypothesized that: (a) PA and SQ are negatively associated; (b) PA and MT are positively associated; (c) SQ and MT are negatively associated; and (d) the interaction effect of PA and SQ on MT will be buffering. METHODS: Sixty-two participants (age 25.4 6.0 SD) completed inventories related to SQ (Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index) and MT (Mental Toughness Index). PA data were collected according to American College of Sports Medicine guidelines. Main and interaction effects of the responses were analyzed using factorial ANOVA. Significance was set at p \u3c 0.05. All analyses were performed using SPSS. RESULTS: PA was positively correlated with SQ (r = .009, p =.473) and with MT (r = .246, p = .027). SQ was negatively correlated with MT (r = -.470, p = .000). PA (F1,58 = 10.939, p = .002, η2 = .159) and QS (F1,58 = 23.051, p = .000, η2 = .284) had a main effect on MT. The interaction of PA and QS had a buffering moderating effect on MT (F1,58 = 12.394, p = .001, η2 = .176). CONCLUSION: Evidence was found for all but the first hypothesis. PA-participants tending to be mentally tougher than the non-PA ones. Poor sleepers, on average, were mentally tougher than the good sleepers. The buffering effect indicates that the non-PA individuals with poor quality of sleep are the mentally toughest ones, followed by PA individuals with poor quality of sleep. Non-PA individuals with good quality of sleep present the lowest MT levels. In regards to developing mental toughness the authors suggest that: a) PA should be prescribed to good quality of sleepers and b) in poor quality sleepers focus should be placed on sleep before PA. Such findings may be useful to exercise and health-related practitioners when prescribing PA in a wide variety of individuals that report sleep quality issues in relation to MT capacities

Sex Moderates the Fitness Tests - Performance Index Relationship in Collegiate Basketball: A Case Study

Performance indicators are used widely in sports, including basketball. Those total performance metrics are mathematical models that are used to determine the “best” athlete per game/week/season. Players with higher metrics get recruited more and/or get offered better contracts. During offseason, strength and conditioning coaches (SCCs) perform tests to determine the fitness levels of their players. Although those scores differ by sex, the fitness levels are associated with in-season sport performance and, therefore, performance indices. More insight in the fitness tests - performance index relationship in the collegiate basketball and the differential effects by sex would be valuable for all stakeholders (e.g., SCCs, sport coaches, sport agents). In the US, the Player Efficiency Rating (PER) and Efficiency (EFF) are the most commonly used basketball performance indices. PURPOSE: To investigate a) correlation between the uPER and EFF by sex and b) which fitness test most strongly correlates each index by sex. METHODS: Ten male and eight female basketball players (n = 18) from the same college participated. Several fitness tests (full court sprint, bench press, power clean, vertical jump, standing broad jump, and T drill) were performed in the off-season. Performance data, which were collected throughout the following season, were used to calculated unadjusted PER (uPER; equation not shown for space) and EFF (PTS + REB + AST + STL + BLK − Missed FG − Missed FT - TO) / GP). To examine the characteristics of fitness test distributions by sex, the means and standard deviations were generated for each sex. Pearson correlations were estimated as indicators for the relationship between the performance indices and also the relationships between each of the fitness tests and the performance indices by sex. RESULTS: Our results showed lower means and less variability of the fitness tests scores in women than men. The correlation between uPER and EFF in men was moderate (r = .359) and strong in women (r = .662). No strong correlation was found in men between any fitness test and EFF, while full court sprint was strongly correlated with uPER (r = .738). In women, strong correlations were detected between a) T drill and EFF (r = .574) and b) foul court sprint (r = .610), vertical jump (r = .662), and T drill (r = .659) and uPER. No statistical inferences were made due to the nature of the study. CONCLUSION: Our outcomes suggest that uPER and EFF reflect different amounts of information based on sex. Practical implications include that a) foul court drill scores may predict uPER more accurately in both men and women and b) T drill scores may predict both EFF and uPER more precisely in women. Future, larger-scale studies should replicate in other settings with larger samples. Limitations may include small sample size

COVID-19 Adherence to Physical Activity Guidelines Moderates the Mental Health/Toughness Relationship on Black/Hispanic Females

Physical activity (PA) improves mental health (MH). Mental toughness (MT) positively correlates to MH. Only 45% of Hispanics and Blacks over 18 years and less than 40% of US females meet the ACSM PA guidelines. PA has been decreasing during the COVID-19. PURPOSE: Investigate during the pandemic the effect of PA adherence on the MT-MH relationship on previously physically active, Black and Hispanic females. METHODS: Fifteen females (age 21.3±3.6 yr), six Hispanic and nine Black, who met the ACSM guidelines before the pandemic, completed the Mental Health Continuum and Mental Toughness Index inventories, while reporting their PA habits during the pandemic. Data analyzed with double moderation model-2 (MH=Y; MT=X). PA habits and race were the moderators. MT centered for product construction and heteroscedasticity consistent error. Moderation and conditioning significance set at pÓ, PROCESSÓ v.3 by Hayes. RESULTS: Model significantly predicted MH (F5,9=8.9,p=.003, R2=.7). MT significantly predicted MH (b=11.0, t9=3.3, p=.009). Significant MTxPA interaction (F1,9=19.0,p=.002, ΔR2=.3). PA, race, and MTxRace interaction did not predict MH. Hispanics and Blacks, who met the PA guidelines before but not during, presented significant positive relationship between MT and MH (b=2.9, t9=3.7, p=.005;b=3.5, t9=5.4, p=.0004, respectively), with Blacks to better predict MH. Hispanics, who met the PA guidelines both before and during the pandemic, presented non-significant negative relationship between MT and MH (b=-.3, t9=-.3, p=.8) having the worst prediction for MH. Blacks retained a positive non-significant relationship between MT and MH (b=.4, t9=.6, p=.6) with a weak MH prediction. CONCLUSION: Results infer a buffering (Black) and an antagonistic (Hispanic) moderating effect on the MT-MH relationship on previously physically-active females. This preliminary evidence suggests that adhering to PA guidelines during the pandemic would decrease the effect of MT on MH (less positive) in Black females and reverse the effect of MT on MH (becomes negative) in Hispanic females. Possible explanations include different response to the additional stress of PA due to cultural differences. Larger-scale studies are needed to examine the mechanistic explanation of this observation

Mental Health Best Practices in NCAA: The Bidirectional Relationship between Mental Toughness and Self-Compassion

Based on National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) reports, student-athletes’ well-being is compromised by sub-clinical issues of mental health (MH) disorders, such as depression and anxiety. Preliminary data have shown a positive relationship between mental toughness (MT) and MH, self-compassion (SC) and MH, and SC and MT. To date, possible indirect causal relationships between these three constructs have not been investigated. PURPOSE: To confirm the three aforementioned relationships in NCAA athletes and explore the mediation role of MT and SC on the SC-MH and MT-MH relationships, respectively. Hypotheses: (1) MT will correlate positively with MH, (2) SC will correlate positively with MH, (3) MT will correlate positively with SC, (4) MT will mediate the SC-MH relationship, and (5) SC will mediate the MT-MH relationship. METHODS: The Mental Toughness Index, the Self-Compassion Scale, and the Mental Health Continuum-Short Form were uploaded on Qualtrics. NCAA athletes were invited to participate via email. The sample (n=466) was predominantly Division III, White, female, freshmen, soccer players, and in-season (Mage=19.8, SD=1.8). The analysis consisted of two parts. In the first, bivariate correlations were computed among MT, SC, and MH. In the second, a structural equation model was constructed to test the bidirectional relationship between MT and SC, where MT and SC also had direct effects on MH. All analyses were completed in R. RESULTS: The findings showed a positive relationship between MT and MH (r=0.371, pr=0.461, pr=0.533, pCONCLUSION: Our positive correlation results are in accordance with Gucciardi, Hanton, and Fleming (2017), Neff, Rude, and Kirkpatrick (2007), Wilson, Bennett, Mosewich, Faulkner, and Crocker (2018), and Ales, Kurzum, Deal, and Stamatis (2018). The full bidirectional model analysis revealed that MT is associated with increases in SC and increases in both MT and SC are associated with increases in MH. Therefore and concerning updating mental health best practices, both MT and SC psychological skill training can potentially increase MH levels. However, to most appropriately increase athletes’ MH, stakeholders should prioritize MT, over and above SC, but not to its detriment. Possible limitations include self-assessment and athletes representing three institutions only. Similar, larger-scale research projects are needed in the future

Identifying Anger through Gait and Balance Analysis using Machine Learning Models

Anger may have detrimental effects on an individual\u27s flexibility, muscle tension, and cognitive function. Gait and balance data have emerged as promising indicators for accurately identifying anger. However, the use of machine learning (ML) models in developing algorithms to predict anger levels using such data remains limited. PURPOSE: To contribute to the development of algorithms that can be used to identify individuals who are angry based on their gait and balance data. METHODS: The Profile of Mood Survey-Short Form (POMS-SF) was administered to 133 individuals (male = 50) to assess mood state, followed by the modified Clinical Test of Sensory Interaction on Balance (mCTSIB), and a 2-minute walk around a 6m track with participants wearing APDM mobility monitors. Spatiotemporal gait and balance parameters were extracted and used in ML models to classify individuals reporting no anger (NA), mild feelings of anger (MA), or moderate to high feelings of anger (HA). A leave-one-out cross-validation technique was employed in model training, and F1 scores were utilized to assess sensitivity due to imbalanced data. RESULTS: The Gaussian Naive Bayes model achieved the highest accuracy of 87.15% (F1 = 0.87) in distinguishing individuals reporting NA from those reporting HA when utilizing both gait and balance data. The Random Forest Classifiers exhibited the best performance in differentiating between individuals reporting NA and those reporting MA, with an accuracy of 81.20% (F1 = 0.81) when analyzing data from the eyes open, feet on the ground portion of the mCTSIB. In discriminating individuals with MA from those with HA, the Gradient Boosting classifier showed the highest accuracy of 90.24% (F1 = 0.90). CONCLUSION: Being able to accurately identify anger in individuals can inform exercise professionals in tailoring interventions to improve physical performance and reduce injury risk. The present study provides evidence that the use of gait and balance analysis may serve as a viable method for identifying individuals exhibiting anger-related affective states. Despite promising results, further investigations are necessary to refine/optimize the ML algorithms employed in this study; thus, providing a more comprehensive/reliable framework for identifying emotional states via biomechanical measures

Perceived Feelings and Dyspnea During Maximal Exercise Testing with Different Masks: A Randomized Crossover Study

The COVID-19 pandemic prompted the widespread use of facemasks. Concerns were raised about their comfort and functionality during exercise. Research on the subjective experiences of exercisers wearing masks during high levels of intensity is scarce. PURPOSE: To examine the sensational perceptions related to facemasks and maximal exercise testing. METHODS: The study utilized a randomized crossover design. Five participants completed a maximum Bruce protocol while wearing a surgical (SM), cloth (CM), N95 (N95), or no mask (NM). Their perceptual responses were collected at a pre-exercise (PRE), Respiratory Exchange Ratio of 1.0 (RER1.0), and immediately post-exercise (IPE), using Feeling Scale (FS) and Dyspnea scale (CR10). A two-way repeated measures ANOVA for time by condition was employed, and Tukey post hoc pairwise comparisons were reported for significant within-subjects’ effects. RESULTS: FS: There was a time (F2,8 = 29.6, p \u3c .001, η2 = .84), condition (F3,12 = 5.1, p = .017, η2 = .00), and time*condition (F6,24 = 3.4, p = .015, η2 = .01) interaction. Time comparisons revealed that PRE (3.95) was significantly higher than RER1.0 (-2.4)(t4 = 4.7, p = .020) and IPE (-3.45) (-2.4)(t4 = 6.6, p = .006). Condition comparisons showed that NM (-.33) was significantly higher than SM (-1.00) (t4 = 4.5, p = .037). The time* condition effect at p \u3c .005 showed that PRE-NM, PRE-SM, PRE-CM, and PRE-N95 were higher than IPE-NM, IPE-SM, and PE-CM, respectively. CR10:There was a time (F2,8 = 230.2, p \u3c .001, η2 = .90), condition (F3,12 = 7.4, p = .005, η2 = .02), and time*condition (F6,24 = 4.5, p = .004, η2 = .02) interaction. Time comparisons revealed that PRE (0.00) was lower than RER1.0 (6.8) (t4 = -15.6, p \u3c .001) and IPE (8.2) (t4 = -29.4, p \u3c .001), respectively. Condition comparisons revealed that NM (4.3) was lower than SM (5.7) (t4 = -5.3, p = .021), and SM (5.7) was higher than N95 (4.9) (t4 = 4.7, p = .031). The time*condition effect at p \u3c .005, showed that PRE-NM was lower than RER1.0-NM, RER1.0-SM, RER1.0-CM, RER1.0-N95, IPE-NM, IPE-SM, IPE-CM, and IPE-N95. PRE-SM, PRE-CM, and PRE-N95 were lower than all other time*conditions pairwise comparisons. CONCLUSION: Crossing the anaerobic threshold during a maximal exercise testing, wearing a mask can negatively impact perceived feeling and dyspnea, particularly with a surgical mask

Fear of COVID-19 and Adherence to Lockdown Deteriorated Police Cadets’ Handgrip Strength Relative to BMI

Due to COVID-19 pandemic, police academies enforced lockdowns to protect cadets’ well-being. Fear of health issues (e.g., perceived severity) influences ones’ adherence (e.g., readiness to act) to changes in exercise behavior. According to WHO, modifications in exercise behavior during the pandemic influence health status. A well-established clinical health marker is the handgrip strength relative to body mass index (HSR). The relationship between fear and physical well-being during COVID-19 is still under investigation. The mediating effect of adherence to COVID-19 restrictions on the fear-health status relationship in police cadetsis unknown. PURPOSE: To explore a) the fear-HSR relationship and b) the mediating effect of adherence to COVID-19 restrictions on the fear-HSR relationship. METHODS: Cadets of both sexes, 98 males and 77 females, performed a bilateral HSR test and answered a) to what degree (i.e., no, partial, yes) they apply the recommended anti-COVID-19 measures; b) a five-item Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) Fear of COVID-19 (FCV-19S) survey. HSR, adherence to COVID-19 restrictions, and composite sum mean FCV-19S score (higher score indicates higher fear) were used as outcome, predictor, and mediating variables respectively. PROCESSÓ v.3 by Hayes mediation analysis model 4 performed using SPSSÓ with significance set at pRESULTS: Fear was a significant predictor of HSR (the c pathway) (b=-.34, t173=-2.6, p=.01): more fear, less HSR. FCV-19S was positively related to adherence (the a pathway) (b=.23, t173=2.6, p=.009): more FCV-19S, more adherence. Adherence was negatively related to HSR, (the b pathway) (b=-.27, t172=-2.4, p=.02): more adherence, less HSR, with fear as an adjustor. The relationship between FCV-19S and HSR was lessened with adherence as an adjustor (the c’ pathway) (b=-.27, t172=-2.1, p=.04). The indirect effect indicated that mediation occurred: indirect=-.07, 95% CI[-.13,-.01]. CONCLUSION: In this case, nor the lockdown nor fear were related to higher scores in the HSR index, although adherence to restrictions lessened the effect of fear alone. Administrators may need to find ways to not only decrease fear of COVID-19, but also avoid blanket measures as those may end up not protecting their cadets’ wellbeing

Fear of COVID-19 and Adherence to Lockdown Deteriorated Police Cadets’ Handgrip Strength Relative to BMI

Due to COVID-19 pandemic, police academies enforced lockdowns to protect cadets’ well-being. Fear of health issues (e.g., perceived severity) influences ones’ adherence (e.g., readiness to act) to changes in exercise behavior. According to WHO, modifications in exercise behavior during the pandemic influence health status. A well-established clinical health marker is the handgrip strength relative to body mass index (HSR). The relationship between fear and physical well-being during COVID-19 is still under investigation. The mediating effect of adherence to COVID-19 restrictions on the fear-health status relationship in police cadetsis unknown. PURPOSE: To explore a) the fear-HSR relationship and b) the mediating effect of adherence to COVID-19 restrictions on the fear-HSR relationship. METHODS: Cadets of both sexes, 98 males and 77 females, performed a bilateral HSR test and answered a) to what degree (i.e., no, partial, yes) they apply the recommended anti-COVID-19 measures; b) a five-item Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) Fear of COVID-19 (FCV-19S) survey. HSR, adherence to COVID-19 restrictions, and composite sum mean FCV-19S score (higher score indicates higher fear) were used as outcome, predictor, and mediating variables respectively. PROCESSÓ v.3 by Hayes mediation analysis model 4 performed using SPSSÓ with significance set at pRESULTS: Fear was a significant predictor of HSR (the c pathway) (b=-.34, t173=-2.6, p=.01): more fear, less HSR. FCV-19S was positively related to adherence (the a pathway) (b=.23, t173=2.6, p=.009): more FCV-19S, more adherence. Adherence was negatively related to HSR, (the b pathway) (b=-.27, t172=-2.4, p=.02): more adherence, less HSR, with fear as an adjustor. The relationship between FCV-19S and HSR was lessened with adherence as an adjustor (the c’ pathway) (b=-.27, t172=-2.1, p=.04). The indirect effect indicated that mediation occurred: indirect=-.07, 95% CI[-.13,-.01]. CONCLUSION: In this case, nor the lockdown nor fear were related to higher scores in the HSR index, although adherence to restrictions lessened the effect of fear alone. Administrators may need to find ways to not only decrease fear of COVID-19, but also avoid blanket measures as those may end up not protecting their cadets’ wellbeing