Cardiomyopathies in Sub-Saharan Africa: Hypertensive Heart Disease (Cardiomyopathy), Peripartum Cardiomyopathy and HIV-Associated Cardiomyopathy

Cardiomyopathy is an important cause of cardiac-related morbidity and mortality in sub-Saharan Africa. Dilated cardiomyopathy is responsible for 20–30% of adult heart failure (HF) in the region. It is only second to hypertensive heart disease as etiological risk factor for HF in many parts of the continent. The aim of the chapter is to review the current epidemiology, clinical features, management, and prognosis of hypertensive heart disease, peripartum cardiomyopathy, and HIV-associated cardiomyopathy in sub-Saharan Africa

Heart Failure in Sub-Saharan Africa

Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is currently experiencing multiple burden of disease as a result of demographic and epidemiologic transition. This is occasioned rapid urbanization, unhealthy diets rich in fats and salt, western lifestyle and sedentary living. Heart failure (HF) has become a global public health issue. It is associated with high morbidity and mortality, frequent hospitalization and high economic cost. In SSA, HF is a disease of young and middle-aged adults with the attendant high disability-adjusted life years. This is unlike to the clinical profile and pattern of HF in high-income countries of North America, Western Europe and Japan where HF is a disease of the elderly. In addition, while ischaemic heart disease is the commonest aetiologic risk factor for HF in high income countries, HF in SSA is essentially non-ischaemic in origin. Hypertensive heart failure, dilated cardiomyopathy, rheumatic heart disease, pericardial diseases and HIV associated cardiomyopathy are the common risk factors. The chapter reviews the contemporary information on HF in SSA in terms of socio-demographic features, clinical characteristics, aetiological risk factors, management, prognosis and economic burden

Graves’ disease presenting as paranoid schizophrenia in a Nigerian woman: a case report

Paranoid syndromes in Graves’ disease are rare. The true incidence is lacking. Most reports have emanated from developed countries where medical investigations are readily available. No report of such has emanated from Nigeria. We report a 43-year-old female Nigerian with Graves’ disease associated with paranoid schizophrenia and review the literature

Childhood and infant exposure to famine in the Biafran war is associated with hypertension in later life: the Abia NCDS study

There are very few studies in Africans investigating the association between early life exposure to malnutrition and subsequent hypertension in adulthood. We set out to investigate this potential association within an adult cohort who were born around the time of the Biafran War (1968–1970) and subsequent famine in Nigeria. This was a retrospective analysis of Abia State Non-Communicable Diseases and Cardiovascular Risk Factors (AS-NCD-CRF) Survey, a community-based, cross-sectional study that profiled 386 adults (47.4% men) of Igbo ethnicity born in the decade between January 1965 and December 1974. Based on their date of birth and the timing of the famine, participants were grouped according to their exposure to famine as children (Child-Fam) or in-utero fetus/infant (Fet-Inf-Fam) or no exposure (No-Fam). Binomial logit regression models were fitted to determine the association between famine exposure and hypertension in adulthood. Overall, 130 participants had hypertension (33.7%). Compared to the No-Fam group (24.4%), the prevalence of hypertension was significantly elevated in both the Child-Fam (43% - adjusted OR 2.47, 95% CI 1.14–5.36) and Fet-Inf-Fam (44.6% - adjusted OR 2.54, 95% CI 1.33–4.86) groups. The risk of hypertension in adulthood was highest among females within the Child-Fam group. However, within the Fet-Inf-Fam group males had a equivalently higher risk than females. These data suggest that early life exposure to famine and malnutrition in Africa is associated with a markedly increased risk of hypertension in adulthood; with sex-based differences evident. Thus, the importance of avoiding armed conflicts and food in-security in the region cannot be overstated. The legacy effects of the Biafran War clearly show the wider need for ongoing programs that support the nutritional needs of African mothers, infants and children as well as proactive surveillance programs for the early signs of hypertension in young Africans

Economic burden of heart failure: investigating outpatient and inpatient costs in abeokuta, southwest Nigeria

Background: Heart failure (HF) is a deadly, disabling and often costly syndrome world-wide. Unfortunately, there is a paucity of data describing its economic impact in sub Saharan Africa; a region in which the number of relatively younger cases will inevitably rise. Methods: Heath economic data were extracted from a prospective HF registry in a tertiary hospital situated in Abeokuta, southwest Nigeria. Outpatient and inpatient costs were computed from a representative cohort of 239 HF cases including personnel, diagnostic and treatment resources used for their management over a 12-month period. Indirect costs were also calculated. The annual cost per person was then calculated. Results: Mean age of the cohort was 58.0±15.1 years and 53.1% were men. The total computed cost of care of HF in Abeokuta was 76, 288,845 Nigerian Naira (US$508, 595) translating to 319,200 Naira (US$2,128 US Dollars) per patient per year. The total cost of in-patient care (46% of total health care expenditure) was estimated as 34,996,477 Naira (about 301,230 US dollars). This comprised of 17,899,977 Naira- 50.9% ($US114,600) and 17,806,500 naira −49.1$US118,710) for direct and in-direct costs respectively. Out-patient cost was estimated as 41,292,368 Naira ($US 275,282). The relatively high cost of outpatient care was largely due to cost of transportation for monthly follow up visits. Payments were mostly made through out-of-pocket spending. Conclusion: The economic burden of HF in Nigeria is particularly high considering, the relatively young age of affected cases, a minimum wage of 18,000 Naira ($US120) per month and considerable component of out-of-pocket spending for those affected. Health reforms designed to mitigate the individual to societal burden imposed by the syndrome are required

Differences in socio-demographic and risk factor profile, clinical presentation, and outcomes between patients with and without RHD heart failure in Sub-Saharan Africa: results from the THESUS-HF registry

Background: Rheumatic heart disease (RHD) was found in the THESUS-HF registry to be the third most common cause of acute heart failure (AHF) in Sub-Saharan Africa. Methods: One thousand six patients with AHF from 9 Sub-Saharan African countries were recruited in THESUS-HF, of which 143 (14.3%) had RHD-AHF. Clinical characteristics and outcomes in patients with RHD-AHF and non-RHD-AHF were compared. Kaplan-Meier plots for time to all-cause death and/or HF readmission according to the presence of RHD-AHF and non-RHD-AHF were performed and survival distributions compared using the log-rank test. Cox regression was used to determine the hazard ratio of death to day 180 and death or readmission to day 60 after adjusting for confounders. Results: Patients with RHD-AHF were younger, more often females, had higher rates of atrial fibrillation, had less hypertension, hyperlipidemia and diabetes, had lower BP, and higher pulse rate and better kidney function and echocardiographic higher ejection fraction larger left atria and more diastolic dysfunction. Patients with RHD-AHF had a numerically longer mean stay in the hospital (10.5 vs. 8.8 days) and significantly higher initial hospitalization mortality (9.1% vs. 3.4%). Conclusions: In conclusion, patients with HF related to RHD were younger, have higher rate of atrial fibrillation and have a worse short-term outcome compared to HF related to other etiologies in Sub-Saharan Afric

Spectrum of heart diseases in a new cardiac service in Nigeria: An echocardiographic study of 1441 subjects in Abeokuta

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Echocardiography is a non-invasive, relatively cheap and useful imaging technique for the evaluation of cardiac diseases. The procedure has reliable levels of accuracy.</p> <p>Echocardiography commenced at the Federal medical centre Abeokuta on September 9, 2005.</p> <p>The aim of this study is to report our experience with the procedure, and to define the clinical cases seen in our setting.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>This is a retrospective analysis of a prospectively collected data. Echocardiography was performed using Aloka SSD 1,100 echocardiograph equipped with 2.5–5.0 MHz transducer</p> <p>Results</p> <p>During the period of 18 months under review (September 2005–February 2007), 1629 procedures were performed. The reports of 188 echocardiograms were excluded due to poor echo-window, repeated procedure or incomplete report. 1441 reports were reviewed for demographic parameter, indications for the procedure and the main echocardiographic diagnoses.</p> <p>The mean age of the 1441 individuals studied was 54 +/- 14.3 years (15–90). There were 744 men and 697 women. Eight hundred and seventeen subjects (56.7%) had hypertensive heart disease, 53 subjects (3.7%) had rheumatic heart disease while 44(3.0%) had dilated cardiomyopathy. Pericardial diseases, cor-pulmonale, ischaemic heart disease, congenital heart diseases, diabetic heart disease, thyroid heart disease, sickle cell cardiopathy were present in 26(1.8%), 23(1.6%), 9(0.6%), 6(0.4%), 6(0.4%), 6(0.4%), 1(0.1%), and 1(0.1%) respectively. Four hundred and forty nine (31.2%) subjects had normal study.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>Hypertensive heart disease was found to be the most prevalent cardiac condition in this study. The relatively frequent diagnoses of rheumatic heart disease, cardiomyopathies and pericardial diseases reflect the impact of infections and infestations on the cardiovascular health of adult Nigerians.</p> <p>We suggest that prevention and treatment of cardiac diseases in our setting should among other things focus on blood pressure control and early treatment of infections causing heart diseases.</p

The causes, treatment, and outcome of acute heart failure in 1006 Africans From 9 countries

Background: Acute heart failure (AHF) in sub-Saharan Africa has not been well characterized. Therefore,wesought to describe the characteristics, treatment, and outcomes of patients admitted with AHF in sub-Saharan Africa. Methods: The Sub-Saharan Africa Survey of Heart Failure (THESUS–HF) was a prospective, multicenter, observational survey of patients with AHF admitted to 12 university hospitals in 9 countries. Among patients presenting with AHF, we determined the causes, treatment, and outcomes during 6 months of follow-up. Results: From July 1, 2007, to June 30, 2010, we enrolled 1006 patients presenting with AHF. Mean (SD) age was 52.3 (18.3) years, 511 (50.8%) were women, and the predominant race was black African (984 of 999 [98.5%]). Mean (SD) left ventricular ejection fraction was 39.5% (16.5%)... Conclusions: In African patients, AHF has a predominantly nonischemic cause, most commonly hypertension. The condition occurs in middle-aged adults, equally in men and women, and is associated with high mortality. The outcome is similar to that observed in non- African AHF registries, suggesting that AHF has a dire prognosis globally, regardless of the cause

Blood pressure control and left ventricular hypertrophy in hypertensive Nigerians

Background : Hypertension is a disease characterized by end-organ complications, leading to high morbidity and mortality in many cases. People with untreated or uncontrolled hypertension often run the risk of developing complications directly associated with the disease. Left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) has been shown to be a significant risk factor for adverse outcomes both in patients with hypertension and in the general population. We investigated the prevalence and pattern of LVH in a treated hypertensive population at the University College Hospital, Ibadan, Nigeria, using non-hypertensive subjects as control. Design and Setting : A prospective observational study performed at the University College Hospital, Ibadan, Nigeria. Methods : Patients had 6 visits, when at least one blood pressure measurement was recorded for each hypertensive subject and average calculated for systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) separately. The values obtained were used for stratification of the subjects into controlled and uncontrolled hypertension. Subjects also had echocardiograms to determine their left ventricular mass. Results : LVH was found in 14 (18.2%) of the normotensive group, 40 (20.8%) of the uncontrolled hypertensive group and 14 (24.1%) of the controlled hypertensive group when left ventricular mass (LVM) was indexed to body surface area (BSA). When LVM was indexed to height, left ventricular hypertrophy was found in none of the subjects of the normotensive group, while it was found present in 43 (22.4%) and 14 (24.1%) subjects of the uncontrolled and controlled hypertensive groups, respectively. Significant difference in the prevalence of LVH was detected only when LVM was indexed to height alone. Conclusion : Clinic blood pressure is an ineffective way of assessing BP control. Thus in apparently controlled hypertensive subjects, based on office blood pressure, cardiac structural changes do remain despite antihypertensive therapy. This population is still at risk of cardiovascular events.arri\ue8re-plan: l\u2019hypertension est une maladie caract\ue9ris\ue9e par l\u2019orgue de fi n complications menant \ue0 \ue9lev\ue9 de morbidit\ue9 et mortalit\ue9 dans de nombreux cas. Personnes avec l\u2019hypertension non trait\ue9e ou non contr\uf4l\ue9e souvent risquent de d\ue9velopper complications directement associ\ue9es \ue0 la maladie. Laiss\ue9 ventriculaire hypertrophie (LVH) a \ue9t\ue9 d\ue9montr\ue9 un facteur de risque signifi catif pour les effets n\ue9gatifs r\ue9sultats tant chez les patients atteints de l\u2019hypertension et de la population g\ue9n\ue9rale. Nous avons a enqu\ueat\ue9 sur la pr\ue9valence et le mod\ue8le de LVH dans un trait\ue9 hypertendues population au University College Hospital, \ue0 l\u2019aide Ibadan, Nigeria non-hypertendues des sujets comme contr\uf4le. conception et la confi guration: A \ue9ventuel \ue9tude d\u2019observation effectu\ue9e \ue0 la University College Hospital, Ibadan, Nigeria. m\ue9thodes: Patients avaient six visites o\uf9 au moins un sang mesure de pression a \ue9t\ue9 enregistr\ue9e pour chaque sujet hypertendues et moyenne calcul\ue9s s\ue9par\ue9ment pour SBP et DBP. Les valeurs obtenues ont \ue9t\ue9 utilis\ue9es pour stratifi cation des sujets dans l\u2019hypertension contr\uf4l\ue9e et incontr\uf4l\ue9e. Sujets ont \ue9galement echocardiograms pour d\ue9terminer leur masse ventriculaire gauche. r\ue9sultats: LVH a \ue9t\ue9 trouv\ue9 en 14(18.2%) de la groupe normotensive, 40(20.8%) de groupe de hypertendues non contr\uf4l\ue9es et 14(24.1%) de hypertendues contr\uf4l\ue9e groupe lorsque quitt\ue9 masse ventriculaire (LVM) a \ue9t\ue9 index\ue9e \ue0 corps surface (BSA). Lorsque LVM a \ue9t\ue9 index\ue9 \ue0 hauteur, laiss\ue9 ventriculaire hypertrophie a \ue9t\ue9 trouv\ue9 dans aucun du groupe normotensive, bien qu\u2019il a \ue9t\ue9 constat\ue9 pr\ue9sents dans les 43(22.4%) et 14(24.1%) de hypertendues non ma\ueetris\ue9e et contr\uf4l\ue9e groupes respectivement. \uc9tait de diff\ue9rence signifi cative dans la pr\ue9valence de la LVH d\ue9tect\ue9s uniquement lorsque LVM a \ue9t\ue9 index\ue9 \ue0 hauteur alone. conclusion: clinique art\ue9rielle est un moyen ineffi cace de mesurer le contr\uf4le de BP. Ainsi en sujet hypertendues apparemment contr\uf4l\ue9e bas\ue9e sur la pression art\ue9rielle de bureau, des changements structurels cardiaques restent malgr\ue9 th\ue9rapie antihypertensive. Cette population est toujours \ue0 risque de maladies cardiovasculaires \ue9v\ue9nements