Modes de consommation des insectes comestibles et perspectives d'avenir pour renforcer la filière en République Démocratique du Congo

As far back as we can go in history, insects seem to have played a key role in nature by providing essential ecosystemic services. The edible species of these representatives of Arthropods have also provided humans with essential nutrients to vital functions. Up to now, entomophagy remains integrated in the eating habits of many populations around the world, as this practice contribute significantly to food security and resilience of food systems. Considering the ecological footprint of conventional production models, and the increasing challenge to feed a growing global population (while preserving the planet) – against the backdrop of the worldwide health crisis (COVID-19) that disrupted global food systems – the biomass of edible insects, and the potential for sustainable food production of this biological resource should be examined more closely. It is within this context that fits the present work, as it is intimately concerned with these six-legged invertebrates and explores their contribution to the food system in DRC. To achieve this, the first part of the thesis drew up the inventory of species, and documented entomophagous habits across the country. The findings highlighted significant insect biodiversity (148 species) belonging to 9 orders - the main ones being the Lepidoptera (Saturniidae, Sphingidae, Notodontidae) (60%), Orthoptera (Acrididae, Gryllidae, Pyrgomorphidae) (10%), Coleoptera (Cerambycidae, Dynastidae, Dryophthoridae) (8%) and Hymenoptera (Apidae, Formicidae) (8%). The plant biodiversity (122 species of host plants for 38 species of insects) is dominated by the Fabaceae (Brachystegia spp., Albizia spp.) (34%), Phyllanthaceae (Uapaca spp.) (11%), Meliaceae (Entandrophragma spp.) (5%) and Apocynaceae (Funtumia spp.) (4%). In addition, the national inventory pointed out major ecological associations - such as Elaphrodes lactea associated with 30 species of plants, or Julbernadia paniculata associated with 17 insects - while pleading for conservation actions in order to preserve species like Prioria balsamifera (or Autranella congolensis) threatened (or in danger of extinction). This inventory is supplemented by a map of (converging and specific) entomophagous habits which make the richness (and diversity) of this endogenous tradition, then by documentation of past and current consumption patterns. The study highlights the significant contribution of edible insects to food security, particularly during the lockdown of the country's capital - a particular challenging period marked by restrictive measures due to the emergence of the COVID-19. In effect, for 77.4% of respondents, insects (consumed on average 6 days/month, with 128.6 g/pers/day) constituted an important source of nutrients; while for the same period, inequalities (between urban, peri-urban and rural consumers) appeared in the use of meat products. The results of the study also supported the contribution of these invertebrates to the resilience of the local food system, thus joining the invitation to states (by FAO) to promote local resources in order to increase the resilience of food systems to exogenous shocks. Considering issues related to the nutritional value of edible insects porcessed according to traditional methods; another part of the study documented the chemical composition of six species (including Imprasia ertli, Cirina forda, E. lactea - Lepidoptera). The study reported significant protein contents (46 - 53% dry matter), and essential amino acid profiles comparable to the profile of the ideal protein proposed by FAO and WHO. This chemical characterization was followed by the morphological characterization of Rhynchophorus phoenicis (Coleoptera) – an edible species of zootechnic interest in DRC. The study reported the phenotypic variability between 3 natural populations of this Curculionoidea, and suggested an identification tool based on a set of discriminating morphometric characters. The last part of the thesis added originality to the present study by documenting a latent issue in relation with the adoption of mass breeding products by two major actors (traders and famers) in the sector. Regarding traders, the study highlighted mainly unfavorable attitudes (66.3%). These attitudes are supported by motivations (reasons) associated to health security, production or psychology system (neophobia). Therefore, the study suggested these concerns as levers of action for a change of attitude among these key actors in supply chains. Conversely, farmers seem to be globally favorable (78.6%) – although results suggested 3 distinct clusters based on a combination of the sociodemographic profile, the characteristics of production activities, and the dispositions towards innovation (i.e. alternatives to collection in natura). Since collective food challenges call Congolese consumers to dominate cultural reflexes and to consider new food offers, this part of the study has projected itself in the perspectives of the development of entomoculture in the DRC, and proposed strategies to support farmers and traders in the adoption process of sustainable innovations. The thesis documented some important aspects related to entomophagy practices, and brought us to the conclusion of the nutritional, economic and cultural value of edible insects in DRC. However, the necessary steps towards mitigating food insecurity in DRC through edible insects will require (i) to promote alternatives to collection in natura (through mass-farming on substrates, or on artificial diets), (ii) to develop new products (formulations) with local edible species and, (iii) to support the sector by regulations and guidelines specifically adressing edible insects – since the pleasure to crunch these tasty little animals should also be garanteed to generations to come.Aussi loin que l'on puisse remonter dans l'histoire, les insectes paraissent avoir joué un rôle déterminant dans la nature en assurant un certain nombre de services écosystémiques essentiels. Les espèces comestibles de ces représentants d'Arthropodes ont également apporté à l'homme les nutriments nécessaires à ses fonctions vitales. Aujourd'hui encore, ces pratiques entomophages restent bien intégrées dans les habitudes alimentaires de nombreuses populations à travers le globe, contribuant significativement à la sécurité et à la résilience des systèmes alimentaires. Alors que se manifeste au grand jour l'empreinte écologique des modèles conventionnels de production, et que se présente le défi de nourrir une population mondiale croissante tout en préservant la planète – sur fond de la crise sanitaire (COVID-19) qui a bouleversé les systèmes alimentaires à l'échelle mondiale ; la biomasse que constituent les insectes comestibles, et les possibilités de production alimentaire durable de cette ressource biologique sont examinées plus attentivement. C'est dans ce contexte que s'inscrit la présente thèse qui s'intéresse de manière intime à ces invertébrés à six pattes et explore leur contribution dans le système alimentaire de la RDC. Pour ce faire, une partie du travail dresse l'état des lieux des pratiques entomophages, mettant ainsi en lumière une importante biodiversité entomologique (148 espèces) répartie en 9 ordres - les principaux étant les Lépidoptères (Saturniidae, Sphingidae, Notodontidae) (60%), Orthoptères (Acrididae, Gryllidae, Pyrgomorphidae) (10%), Coléoptères (Cerambycidae, Dynastidae, Dryophthoridae) (8%) et Hyménoptères (Apidae, Formicidae) (8%). La biodiversité végétale (122 espèces de plantes hôtes pour 38 espèces d'insectes) est pour sa part représentée par 35 familles – dominées par les Fabaceae (Brachystegia spp., Albizia spp.) (34%), Phyllanthaceae (Uapaca spp.) (11%), Meliaceae (Entandrophragma spp.) (5%) et Apocynaceae (Funtumia spp.) (4%). Par ailleurs, le travail d'inventaire national pointe des associations écologiques majeures – à l'exemple d'Elaphrodes lactea associé à 30 espèces de plantes, ou de Julbernadia paniculata associé à 17 insectes - tout en plaidant pour des actions de conservation afin de préserver les espèces comme Prioria balsamifera (ou Autranella congolensis) menacées (ou en danger critique) d'extinction. Cet état des lieux est complété par une cartographie des pratiques entomophages convergentes (et spécifiques) qui font la richesse (et la diversité) de cette tradition endogène, puis par une documentation des modes de consommation passés et actuels. Le travail met ainsi en évidence la contribution significative des insectes à la sécurité alimentaire particulièrement pendant le confinement de la capitale du pays - période singulièrement difficile marquée par des mesures restrictives liées à l'émergence de la pandémie. En effet, pour 77,4% de répondants, les insectes (consommés en moyenne 6 jours/mois, avec 128,6 g/pers/jour) ont constitué une source importante de nutriments ; alors que pour la même période, des inégalités (entre consommateurs urbains, péri-urbains et ruraux) apparaissent dans l'utilisation des produits carnés. Ces résultats soutiennent également la contribution de ces invertébrés à la résilience du système alimentaire local, rejoignant ainsi l'invitation lancée aux Etats (par la FAO) à promouvoir les ressources locales afin d'accroître la résilience des systèmes alimentaires aux chocs exogènes. Considérant la problématique de la valeur nutritionnelle des insectes comestibles transformés suivant les méthodes traditionnelles ; une autre partie du travail documente la composition chimique de six espèces (dont Imbrasia ertli, Cirina forda, E. lactea - Lépidoptères). L'étude rapporte ainsi des teneurs significatives en protéines (46 – 53% en matière sèche), et des profils en acides aminés essentiels comparables au profil de la protéine idéale proposée par la FAO et l'OMS. Cette caractérisation chimique est ensuite complétée par une caractérisation morphologique de Rhynchophorus phoenicis (Coléoptères) - espèce de grand intérêt alimentaire et zootechnique en RDC. L'étude met ainsi en lumière la variabilité phénotypique entre 3 populations naturelles de ce Curculionoidea, puis propose un outil d'identification basé sur un ensemble de caractères morphométriques discriminants. Le dernier volet de la thèse ajoute une dose supplémentaire d'originalité au travail en documentant une problématique latente en rapport avec l'adoption des produits d'élevage en masse par certains acteurs de la filière. S'agissant des commerçants, l'étude met en évidence des dispositions majoritairement défavorables (66,3%), soutenues par des préoccupations associées aux dimensions sécurité sanitaire, système de production ou psychologie (néophobie) - qui sont autant de leviers d'action pour un changement d'attitude parmi ces intervenants majeurs des chaînes d'approvisionnement. Pour leur part, les producteurs paraissent majoritairement favorables (78,6%) - les résultats suggérant toutefois 3 clusters distincts basés une combinaison du profil sociodémographique, des caractéristiques des activités de production et des dispositions face aux alternatives à la récolte in natura. Puisque les défis alimentaires collectifs sont tels que les consommateurs congolais sont appelés à dominer les réflexes culturels et à envisager des offres alimentaires nouvelles, cette partie du travail s'est projeté dans les perspectives du développement de l'entomoculture en RDC en proposant des stratégies pour accompagner producteurs et commerçants dans le processus d'adoption d'innovations durables. La thèse apporte ainsi une masse d'informations convergeant particulièrement vers la valeur nutritionnelle, économique et culturelle des insectes comestibles en RDC. Elle invite non seulement à les déguster, mais également (i) à promouvoir les alternatives à la récolte in natura (élevage ex situ, sur substrats ou sur diètes artificielles), (ii) à réfléchir sur de nouveaux débouchés (formulations, produits à base d'insectes comestibles) et, (iii) à soutenir la filière par un cadre règlementaire spécifique - le plaisir de croquer ces savoureuses petites bêtes devant également être assuré aux générations qui viennent après nous.2. Zero hunge

Enhancing Monitoring and Control of the Fall Armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DR Congo) by Citizen Science

The Fall Armyworm (FAW) (Spodoptera frugiperda - Lepidoptera) is an insect that feeds on more than 80 plant species and causes major damage to economically important crops including maize, rice or sugarcane. While in cooler climates development slows down to one or a few generations per year because frost kills the insect, in Africa, the FAW moths can travel hundreds of kilometers per night and reproduce every 1–2 months, which helped the pest spread rapidly. Environmental and climatic analyses of Africa show that the FAW is likely to build permanent and significant populations in West and Southern Africa, spreading to other regions when weather or temperatures are favourable. Located in the Central Africa, the DR Congo is now facing this challenge. Since 2016, the FAW has caused important yield losses (up to 80% in 4 regions) where maize is cultivated. Almost 50 of the 147 administrative territories have been affected. The damage resulted in a surge in commodity prices (the price of a 25 kg bag of corn rose from $10 to$ 30)

Teneur en protéines et profils d'acides aminés d'espèces d'insectes comestibles sélectionnées de la République démocratique du Congo pertinentes pour le commerce transfrontalier à travers l'Afrique.

peer reviewedThis study analyzed the protein content of ten edible insect species (using the Dumas method), then focused on the amino acid (AA) profiles of the six major commercially relevant species using HPLC (high-pressure (or performance) liquid chromatography). The protein contents varied significantly from 46.1% to 52.9% (dry matter); the Orthoptera representative yielding both the highest protein content and the highest values in three essential amino acids (EAAs). Regarding Lepidoptera species, the protein content of Saturniidae varied more than for Notodontidae. Imbrasia ertli gave the best example of a species that could be suggested for dietary supplementation of cereal-based diets, as the sample contained the highest values in five EAAs and for the EAA index. Furthermore, first-limiting AAs in the selected insects have also been pointed out (based on a species-specific AA score), supporting that the real benefit from eating insects is correlated to a varied diet. Additionally, preliminary insights into AA distribution patterns according to taxa provided three clusters based on protein quality and should be completed further to help tailor prescriptions of dietary diets. Since the AA composition of the selected insects was close to the FAO/WHO EAA requirement pattern for preschool children and met the requirements of 40% EAAs with high ratio EAAs/NEAAs, the current study endorses reports of edible insects as nutrient-rich and sustainable protein sources.2. Zero hunge

CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY OF ENTOMOPHAGY IN KINSHASA

Les données recueillies lors de cette étude révèlent que l’entomophagie est bien intégrée à Kinshasa. Cette habitude alimentaire est pratiquée au même titre par près de 80% d’hommes et de femmes de tous âges et niveaux d’études. Son importance culturelle et le rôle majeur exercé par les femmes dans cette filière ; principales actrices et bénéficiaires des revenus générés par le commerce des insectes, ont également été mis en évidence. La composition chimique de 11 espèces d'insectes vendus sur les marchés locaux a été étudiée afin de mieux caractériser leur apport nutritionnel. Des teneurs élevées en protéines, en acides aminés essentiels et en lipides, proches de celles publiées par certains auteurs ont été trouvées, mais également des teneurs sensiblement supérieures à celles indiquées pour des espèces de même famille. Un typage moléculaire basé sur des amorces aléatoires (RAPD) a également été réalisé pour identifier une espèce consommée s'apparentant à une espèce de référence. Quoique les résultats ne soient pas concluants quand à la similarité entre ces deux espèces, les amorces ayant donné les meilleurs produits d’amplification sont proposés. Les résultats de cette étude mettent ainsi en évidence la contribution de l’entomophagie à la réduction de l’insécurité alimentaire à Kinshasa, ses implications sociales (contribution à la réduction de la pauvreté et autonomisation des femmes) au regard des revenus appréciables générés par le commerce des insectes, et les besoins encore nécessaires pour une meilleure caractérisation des espèces consommées dans la capitale du pays.The data collected during this study indicate that entomophagy is well integrated in Kinshasa. This eating habit is practiced in the same way by almost 80% of men and women of all ages and levels of education. Its cultural significance and the role exercised by women in this sector, main actors and beneficiaries of the income generated by the trade of insects, were also highlighted. The chemical composition of 11 species of insects sold in local markets has been studied to better characterize their nutritional intake. High levels of protein, essential amino acids and lipids similar to those reported by some authors have been found, but also levels significantly higher than those reported for species of the same family. Molecular typing based on random primers (RAPD) has been performed to identify a species consumed akin to a reference species. Although the results are inconclusive about the similarity between these two species, the primers that gave the best amplification products are proposed. The results of this study thus highlight the contribution of entomophagy to reduce food insecurity in Kinshasa, its social implications (contribution to poverty alleviation and empowerment of women) with respect to revenues generated by the trade of insects, and remaining requirements for a better characterization of species consumed in the country's capital

Edible insects from the DRC: Entomophagy

Entomological dataset provided by the 'Université Pédagogique Nationale' of Kinshasa (UPN) within the framework of the call for data providers of the CABIN (Central African Biodiversity Information Network) project carried out by the Royal Museum for central Africa, Belgium "Jeu de données d'entomologie fournies par l'Université Pédagogique Nationale de Kinshasa (UPN) dans le cadre de l'activité de publication des données CABIN du Musée Royal de l'Afrique centrale de Tervuren.CABIN15. Life on lan

Citizen science, a tool for enhancing knowledge and management of edible insect biodiversity in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DR Congo)

The DR Congo covers more than 2,345,000 km2 and has the second largest forest containing a great animal biodiversity, which unfortunately remains little characterized. This is the case for edible insects that Congolese eat in abundance and which contribute significantly to the fight against food insecurity. Recent studies have shown that 80% of the country's population consumes two different species of insects per week (60 to 150g/person/day). To date, more than 50 species of insects (mainly in 5 families: Saturniidae, Notodontidae, Curculionidae, Termitidae and Gryllidae, respectively two moths, beetles, termites, and crickets) have been identified with protein levels (55-65%), fat content (10-15%) or vitamins. Faced with a political will shifted to other priorities, no formal program to collect data to characterize this biodiversity has been initiated. For their part, classic studies that provided current data are facing the following main challenges: (i) the national territory is too vast and impossible to cover by these types of studies, (ii) insects are known under several common names (complicated by >240 languages) or only one name is used to identify taxonomically distant species; (iii) historical data are very hard to find (the oral tradition being preferred to writing); (iv) the difficulty of finding geo-referenced data (with the risk associated in its collection); (v) the absence of reference collections and the lack of specialists. An effective alternative to circumvent these difficulties and to gather data (whose urgency is understandable due to the shrinking of some insect populations or their habitats) is promoting Citizen Science. Such research programs involving scientists and the participation of amateurs or interested volunteer citizens within local populations would constitute a set of data across the country and over a longer period than what has been done so far. With the development of free software and mobile applications, non-specialists could, based on standards and protocols validated by scientists, be involved in the digitization of specimens observed or identification of insect species through graphical user interfaces; help clarify the correspondence between vernacular names and scientific names; participate in habitat monitoring of insect species; or help collecting geo-referenced data via mobile phone. These field-based research activities can be conducted without great expense and will offer professionals and non-professionals a collaborative ground to contribute together toward advances in knowledge of edible insects and the implementation of targeted actions for the management of this resource in DR Congo

Capacity building for sustaining biodiversity in DR Congo

Despite the country’s significantly diverse flora and fauna, very little data are available on the biodiversity of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DR Congo). To remedy this while facing the urgent need for better knowledge and management of biodiversity, some universities in the country are engaged in the implementation and the publishing of the results of work on biodiversity conducted by researchers. To date UPN, the National Pedagogical University at Kinshasa has published five databases in collaboration with the Royal Museum for Central Africa and GBIF: (i) a database of edible insects in DR Congo, including sixty different species belonging respectively and by degree of importance to the Lepidoptera (46.7%), Isoptera (18.6%), Orthoptera (17.6%), Coleoptera (9.7%) and Hymenoptera (3.7%) orders of insects; (ii) a database on farmed animals, including about 13 species of birds, 29 mammals, 5 rodents and 3 mollusks; (iii) a database on forage plants, including about fifty species distributed in 15 orders of plants and 20 families. For each of these species, taxonomic information, common names in French and local languages, and chemical composition are provided; (iv) a database on phytosanitary plants used as pesticides or medicines, with special taxonomic coverage in the Phylum Spermaphyta, Class Magnoliopsida, and Subclass Rosidae; and (v) a botanical database of select families of plants (e.g. Moringaceae, Asteraceae, Poaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Burceraceae, Malvaceae) represented by data in the herbarium of the university. Although many Congolese scientists still retain their data in Excel spreadsheets, some of them are aware of the urgency of sharing bio-data even though they face technology and training gaps that make sustained collaboration a challenge. To increase their motivation to do proper data sharing, there is an urgent need for a better access to digitization tools (and methods) and to standards for mobilizing and integrating sample-based data

Etat des lieux de l'entomophagie en République démocratique du Congo : diversité des espèces et des plantes hôtes, saisonnalité, modes de consommation et enjeux de la filière des insectes comestibles

peer reviewedThis paper reviews edible insect species and the host plant diversity associated with them in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), including their seasonal availability throughout the year. Entomophagy practices are mapped on country scale and nationwide patterns of consumption are explored. Moreover, motives for consumer acceptance (or rejection) of insects as food are reported based on survey data and focus groups. The paper also points out research gaps (concerning notably food-safety risk associated to local species and the effects of processing techniques on nutrient contents or the digestibility of edible insects) and discusses major challenges (as the need for standardisation of local units of sale, the implementation of insects-related regulations and field studies supported by expert taxonomic input) for the sustainable development of the edible insect consumption market in the country. The inventory showed that 148 species of insects are consumed in DRC dominated by the orders of Lepidoptera (60.1%), Orthoptera (10.1%), Coleoptera (8.1%) and Hymenoptera (8.1%). Commonalities were observed throughout the country concerning a minority of the insects consumed (these are notably Rhynchophorus phoenicis, Imbrasia epimethea, Imbrasia oyemensis, Cirina forda), whereas the consumption of several edible species (e.g. Afzeliada afzelii, Hadraphe ethiopica, Rhypopteryx poecilanthes, Acanthacris ruficornis) seems to be restricted to the production areas where they occur, due probably to the absence of a trade system and people’s alimentary habits. Furthermore, host plant species for 38 major edible lepidopterans have been inventoried nationwide. Results indicated 122 plant species dominated by 4 families ranked as follows: Fabaceae (34.4%), Phyllanthaceae (10.6%), Meliaceae (4.9%) and Apocynaceae (4.1%). However, given concerns about some host plant species being endangered (Millettia laurentii, Gossweilerodendron balsamiferum) or critically endangered (Autranella congolensis), conservation strategies and methods of mass-rearing are needed. This article contributes to the growing body of knowledge detailing anthropoentomophagy in DRC.2. Zero hunge

La biodiversité entomologique comme source d’aliments à Kinshasa (République démocratique du Congo)

peer reviewedL’exploitation des produits forestiers non ligneux dont notamment les insectes comestibles jouent un rôle important dans les habitudes alimentaires et économies locales des populations autochtones du bassin du Congo. Bien que la consommation d’insectes en République Démocratique du Congo soit une pratique ancienne, l’inventaire et l’identification taxonomique des espèces consommées ainsi que la caractérisation de la filière « entomophagie » sont encore mal maitrisés. Toutefois, nos études axées sur la ville de Kinshasa ont permis d’inventorier 14 espèces comestibles régulièrement consommées. Elles appartiennent à l’ordre des Lépidoptères (46,7%), des Isoptères (18,6%), des Orthoptères (17,6%), des Coléoptères (9,7%) et des Hyménoptères (3,7%). De façon générale, 80% de la population de Kinshasa consomment au minimum une espèce d’insecte 5 jours par mois avec des quantités variant de 66,4 à 154 g d’insectes par personne par jour en fonction des différents ordres. Les acteurs de la filière sont majoritairement des femmes. Les revenus générés par l’activité concourent au bien-être des ménages, à la réduction de la pauvreté et de l’insécurité alimentaire dans de la capitale Kinshasa

Comparative aspects of cricket farming in Thailand, Cambodia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo and Kenya

peer reviewedCricket farming can have a positive impact on rural development and rural economy in low- and middle-income countries. Moreover, crickets have the potential to address food and nutrition insecurity and promote food sovereignty through the promotion of local production and consumption. This paper presents and discusses five complementary studies conducted in Thailand, Cambodia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR), the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and Kenya. Cricket farming is being promoted in these countries under research projects, public-private partnerships, NGOs and international organisations. In the majority of the countries, cricket farming is still in its infancy and research into how to improve cricket farming systems is still on-going. Cricket farming in Cambodia, Lao PDR, DRC and Kenya remains relatively limited, and many farmers are still a part of pilot projects. In each of the five regions, different cricket species have been a part of traditional diets. As discussed in this paper, many of the potential benefits of the production and consumption of crickets have not yet been realised in many cases due to: (1) lack of adequate support and awareness from stakeholders (especially government agencies); (2) unknown trade volumes; (3) high costs of inputs; and (4) cultural taboos. The information presented in this paper will be especially useful to stakeholders from governmental institutions, non-governmental organisations, civil society organisations and research institutions