Deleuze, Concepts, and Ideas about Film as Philosophy: A Critical and Speculative Re-Examination

This article explores the idea of film as a possible means for articulating original philosophical concepts, in Gilles Deleuze’s sense of concepts. The first of two parts, critically re-examines current ideas about film as philosophy in relation to Deleuze’s ideas on philosophy and cinema/art. It is common within the field of film-philosophy to trace back its central argument that film/cinema is capable of expressing original philosophy, to Deleuze’s cinema books. In and around these books, however, Deleuze did not express such an idea and rather underlined sharp formal differences between cinematic thinking and philosophy (however much he also described and implied proximities and similarities). Cinematic thinking takes the form, he argues, of blocks of movement/duration whereas philosophy is defined as the art of creating concepts. Still, could a close critical scrutiny of and some creativity with Deleuze’s thought allow for taking a step he did not take? The second part of the article takes on the speculative question of whether it is possible to create a notion from within Deleuze’s thought as a whole, that allows for at least the theoretical possibility of articulating original philosophical concepts – as Deleuze defines them (as a particular kind of multiplicity) – in and through film, and what this would mean for our understanding of the concrete form of concepts. The article examines Deleuze’s concept of concepts (how he defines their internal logic and by which formal means he implies that they can be articulated), his descriptions of complicating intersections between philosophy and art, some partly conflicting statements on Godard over the years, aspects of his analyses of filmic thinking in Cinema 2 that can be seen to provide preliminary components for articulating concepts in and through film, and it discusses the place and function of words and texts in such filmic articulations. If the aim of the first part is to clarify Deleuze’s positions on film and philosophy (often muddled in current film-philosophical writings) the aim of the second part resonates with the Deleuzian/Nietzschean quest for formal renewal of philosophy. The overall aim is to re-problematize and provide subtle new means for conceiving of and discussing the notion of film as philosophy

Vägsaltets påverkan på närliggande vegetation, mark samt närliggande slitlager

Syftet med detta arbete är att göra en litteraturstudie och sammanställa fakta om hur vägsalt (NaCl, natriumklorid) påverkar vår stadsmiljö samt att få en överblick hur vegetation, slitlager och markytor i närheten av saltbehandlade vägar påverkas av den höga saltningsintensiteten. I arbetet ingår också en kartläggning av vilka andra alternativ och metoder till salt som provats för att eventuellt kunna vara likvärdiga eller bättre i sin funktion och inte vara lika skadliga som salt är för miljön. Årligen så används det enorma mängder av vägsalt som halkbekämpande medel längs vägarna runtom i Sverige. Salt (NaCl, natriumklorid) som används på våra vägar vid halkbekämpning är en blandning mellan tre komponenter, salt som vanligt bordssalt, gips och klumpförebyggande medel, detta är då det vi använder som vägsalt. Det finns ett mätsystem som Trafikverket använder som samarbetar med väderprognoser för att kunna salta vid den optimala tiden så saltningseffekten blir så långvarig som möjligt. Spridningsmetoden som används idag är en roterande skiva som slungar ut salt (NaCl) på vägarna. Detta är en mycket effektiv metod och saltet kommer ut över hela körfältet, dock orsakar denna metod att det bildas ansamlingar av salt (NaCl) vid en stoppsignal då saltbilen inte stänger av saltspridningsskivan. Dessa ansamlingar av salt (NaCl) slungas upp på trottoarer och närliggande vegetation från förbipasserande fordon. Saltpåverkan på lignoser är mycket negativ då det kan leda till osmotisk stress på deras rötter som i sin tur påverka växtens tillväxt på både grenar och blad. Salt (NaCl) påverkar träd på olika sätt beroende på hur länge den varit utsatt för salt (NaCl) och koncentrationen av saltet. Salt (NaCl) löses upp i markvätskan till Na+ och Cl- och de olika jonerna påverkar trädet separat oberoende av varandra. Natriumjoner som finns i överskott gör att markens aggregatstabilitet minskar genom att lerpartiklar dispergerar. Detta leder till andra problem som minskad porvolym, vattengenomsläpplighet samt infiltration. Dessutom sker detta överskott på natriumjoner på bekostnad av andra katjoner i marken. Vägsalt kan även påverka pH-nivån i jorden. I näringsfattiga sandiga jordar så sjunker det och i vissa näringsrika lerjordar så höjs pH. Alla effekter på jord som nämnts ovan är inte ett lika stort problem i sandiga jordar. Beroende på vad det är för slitlager på marken påverkas det olika, vad det är för material, längden av utsatthet och koncentrationen av salt (NaCl). Betongplattor kan få frostavflagningar från saltskador och detta kan även leda till en ökad risk för armeringskorrosion. Asfalt får inga direkta skador från salt (NaCl), det är smältvattnet från vägen som tar sig ner i porerna i asfalten och sedan expanderar vid återkommande minusgrader. Marktegel är även ett slitlager som inte får några direkta skador från salt (NaCl) såsom asfalt. Salt (NaCl) kan lägga sig på ytan och bilda vita fläckar, saltet kommer antingen i partikelform eller upplöst i markvätskan som finns under teglet. Saltet (NaCl) kan sedan trycks upp genom teglet med hjälp av kapillärkraften till ytan och bildar vita fläckar. Andra lösningar kan vara upp till 20 ggr dyrare att använda jämfört med salt (NaCl), ett alternativ som har undersökts är kalciummagnesiumacetat, även betecknat CMA, som har mycket liten påverkan på vegetationen längs vägar och på korrosion. Saltlösning är mer effektivt och stannar kvar bättre på vägen än torrsalt, ökad användning av saltlösning skulle minska användningen av salt (NaCl). Salt och socker: Socker har ingen smältningseffekt på is och snö så som salt (NaCl) har, jämfört med en saltlösning blir det ingen skillnad av effekten på friktionen om man skulle byta ut halkbekämpningsmedlet till en sockersaltlösning istället. Sockersaltlösning har visats vara mer lockande för vilt och kan leda till fler olyckor på våra vägar. En annan metod som undersökts är speciella plogblad som med ett högt tryck gör det enklare att få bort snö och eventuell slask innan man lägger ut salt på vägarna.The purpose of this essay was to do a literature study and compile facts about how road salt (NaCl, sodium chloride) affects our urban environment and to get an overview of how the vegetation, wearing surfaces and soils adjacent to roads that utilize road salt is affected by it. This work also includes a mapping of what other alternatives and methods that has been tested to find a substitute that is equally or better in its function and not as harmful as salt is to the environment. Every year, huge amounts of road salt is used as de-icing and anti-slip agent along the roads around Sweden. Salt (NaCl, sodiumchloride) that is used on our roads as a de-icing agent is a mix of three components, salt as in regular table salt, plaster and an anti-clumping agent. This is what is used as road salt. There is a system used by the Swedish Transport Administration that collaborates with weather forecasts to be able to use salt at the optimum time and that the effect of the salting will be as long-lasting as possible. The method used today for spreading the salt (NaCl) is a rotating disk that throws it out onto the road. This is a very effective method and the salt (NaCl) comes out all over the road, however, this method causes an accumulation of salt (NaCl) at a stop signal when the salt truck does not shut off the salt spreading disc. These accumulations of salt (NaCl) are thrown onto the sidewalks and nearby vegetation from passing vehicles. The effect of salt (NaCl) on lignoses is very negative, it can lead to osmotic stress on their roots which in turn affect the growth of the plant on both branches and leaves. Salt (NaCl) affects trees in different ways depending on how long it has been exposed to salt (NaCl) and the concentration of the salt. Salt (NaCl) can be dissolved in the soil liquid to Na+ and Cl- and the different ions affect the tree independently of each other. Sodium ions, which are then in excess, reduce the aggregate stability of the soil by dispersing clay particles. This leads to other problems such as reduced pore space, water permeability and infiltration. In addition, this excess of sodium ions occur at the expense of other cations in the soil. Roadsalt may even affect the soils pH. In nutrient-poor, sandy soils the pH decreased and in some clay soils rich with nutrients the pH increased. All the effects on soils mentioned above are not as big of a problem in sandy soils. Depending on the wearing surface it is affected differently, what kind of material it´s of, the length of exposure and the concentration of salt (NaCl). Concrete slabs can get frostflaking from saltdamages and this can lead to an increased risk for corrosion of the reinforcing bar. Asphalt does not sustain direct damages from the salt (NaCl), it does however sustain damage when the roads meltwater descends into the pores and recurrently expands when the temperature drops below the freezing point. Ground tile is another wearing surface that does not get any direct damage, similarly to the asphalt. Salt can settle on the surface and form white spots, the salt comes in either particleform or dissolved in the soilliquid that is below the bricks. The salt (NaCl) can then be pushed up through the bricks to the surface using the capillary force and thereafter forming the white spots. Other alternative solutions can be up to 20 times more expensive than using salt. An alternative that has been studied is calcium-magnesium-acetate, CMA for short, which has very little impact on vegetation along roads and on corrosion. A salt solution is more effective and stays on the road better than dry salt, an increased use of saltsolution would reduce the use of salt. Salt and sugar: Sugar has no melting effect on ice and snow such as a salt. There is no difference regarding friction with the use of a sugar-saltsolution compared to a saltsolution. Sugar-saltsolution has been shown to be more attractive to wildlife and can lead to more accidents on our roads. Another method that has been investigated is special plow blades that with a high pressure makes it easier to remove snow and any slush before putting salt on the roads

The architecture of the BubR1 tetratricopeptide tandem repeat defines a protein motif underlying mitotic checkpoint-kinetochore communication

The accurate and timely transmission of the genetic material to progeny during successive rounds of cell division is sine qua non for the maintenance of genome stability. Eukaryotic cells have evolved a surveillance mechanism, the mitotic spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC), to prevent premature advance to anaphase before every chromosome is properly attached to microtubules of the mitotic spindle. The architecture of the KNL1-BubR1 complex reveals important features of the molecular recognition between SAC components and the kinetochore. The interaction is important for a functional SAC as substitution of BubR1 residues engaged in KNL1 binding impaired the SAC and BubR1 recruitment into checkpoint complexes in stable cell lines. Here we discuss the implications of the disorder-to-order transition of KNL1 upon BubR1 binding for SAC signaling and propose a mechanistic model of how BUBs binding may affect the recognition of KNL1 by its other interacting partners

Expression of 22 serotonin-related genes in rat brain after sub-acute serotonin depletion or reuptake inhibition

Objective: Although the assessment of expression of serotonin-related genes in experimental animals has become a common strategy to shed light on variations in brain serotonergic function, it remains largely unknown to what extent the manipulation of serotonin levels causes detectable changes in gene expression. We therefore chose to investigate how sub-acute depletion or elevation of brain serotonin influences the expression of a number of serotonin-related genes in six brain areas. Methods: Male Wistar rats were administered a serotonin synthesis inhibitor, para-chlorophenylalanine (p-CPA), or a serotonin reuptake inhibitor, paroxetine, for 3 days and then sacrificed. The expression of a number of serotonin-related genes in the raphe nuclei, hypothalamus, amygdala, striatum, hippocampus and prefrontal cortex was investigated using real-time quantitative PCR (rt-qPCR). Results: While most of the studied genes were uninfluenced by paroxetine treatment, we could observe a robust downregulation of tryptophan hydroxylase-2 in the brain region where the serotonergic cell bodies reside, that is, the raphe nuclei. p-CPA induced a significant increase in the expression of Htr1b and Htr2a in amygdala and of Htr2c in the striatum and a marked reduction in the expression of Htr6 in prefrontal cortex; it also enhanced the expression of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (Bdnf) in raphe and hippocampus. Conclusion: With some notable exceptions, the expression of most of the studied genes is left unchanged by short-term modulation of extracellular levels of serotonin

High PIRCHE Scores May Allow Risk Stratification of Borderline Rejection in Kidney Transplant Recipients

BackgroundThe diagnosis of borderline rejection (BLR) ranges from mild inflammation to clinically significant TCMR and is associated with an increased risk of allograft dysfunction. Currently, there is no consensus regarding its treatment due in part to a lack of biomarkers to identify cases with increased risk for immune-mediated injury.MethodsWe identified 60 of 924 kidney transplant recipients (KTRs) with isolated and untreated BLR. We analyzed the impact of predicted indirectly recognizable HLA epitopes (PIRCHE) score on future rejection, de novo DSA development, and recovery to baseline allograft function. Additionally, we compared the outcomes of different Banff rejection phenotypes.ResultsTotal PIRCHE scores were significantly higher in KTRs with BLR compared to the entire study population (p=0.016). Among KTRs with BLR total PIRCHE scores were significantly higher in KTRs who developed TCMR/ABMR in follow-up biopsies (p=0.029). Notably, the most significant difference was found in PIRCHE scores for the HLA-A locus (p=0.010). PIRCHE scores were not associated with the development of de novo DSA or recovery to baseline allograft function among KTRs with BLR (p>0.05). However, KTRs under cyclosporine-based immunosuppression were more likely to develop de novo DSA (p=0.033) than those with tacrolimus, whereas KTRs undergoing retransplantation were less likely to recover to baseline allograft function (p=0.003).ConclusionsHigh PIRCHE scores put KTRs with BLR at an increased risk for future TCMR/ABMR and contribute to improved immunological risk stratification. The benefit of anti-rejection treatment, however, needs to be evaluated in future studies

Item-based analysis of the effects of duloxetine in depression: a patient-level post hoc study

Oft-cited trial-level meta-analyses casting doubt on the usefulness of antidepressants have been based on re-analyses of to what extent the active drug has outperformed placebo in reducing the sum score of the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS-17-sum) in clinical trials. Recent studies, however, suggest patient-level analyses of individual HDRS items to be more informative when assessing the efficacy of an antidepressant. To shed further light on both symptom-reducing and symptom-aggravating effects of a serotonin and noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor, duloxetine, when used for major depression in adults, we hence applied this approach to re-analyse data from 13 placebo-controlled trials. In addition, using patient-level data from 28 placebo-controlled trials of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), the response profile of duloxetine was compared to that of these drugs. Duloxetine induced a robust reduction in depressed mood that was not dependent on baseline severity and not caused by side-effects breaking the blind. A beneficial effect on depressed mood was at hand already after one week; when outcome was assessed using HDRS-17-sum as effect parameter, this early response was however masked by a concomitant deterioration with respect to adverse event-related items. No support for a suicide-provoking effect of duloxetine was obtained. The response profile of duloxetine was strikingly similar to that of the SSRIs. We conclude that the use of HDRS-17-sum as effect parameter underestimates the true efficacy and masks an early effect of duloxetine on core symptoms of depression. No support for major differences between duloxetine and SSRIs in clinical profile were obtained

Serotonin Depletion-Induced Maladaptive Aggression Requires the Presence of Androgens

The sex hormone testosterone and the neurotransmitter serotonin exert opposite effects on several aspects of behavior including territorial aggression. It is however not settled if testosterone exerts its pro-aggressive effects by reducing serotonin transmission and/or if the anti-aggressive effect of serotonin requires the presence of the androgen. Using the resident intruder test, we now show that administration of the serotonin synthesis inhibitor parachlorophenylalanine (300 mg/kg x 3 days) increases the total time of attack as well as the percentage amount of social behavior spent on attack but not that spent on threat - i.e. that it induces a pattern of unrestricted, maladaptive aggression - in gonadectomized C57Bl/6 male mice receiving testosterone replacement; in contrast, it failed to reinstate aggression in those not given testosterone. Whereas these results suggest the pro-aggressive effect of testosterone to be independent of serotonin, and not caused by an inhibition of serotonergic activity, the pCPA-induced induction of maladaptive aggression appears to require the presence of the hormone. In line with these findings, pCPA enhanced the total time of attack as well the relative time spent on attacks but not threats also in wild-type gonadally intact male C57Bl/6 mice, but failed to reinstate aggression in mice rendered hypo-aggressive by early knock-out of androgen receptors in the brain (AR(NesDel) mice). We conclude that androgenic deficiency does not dampen aggression by unleashing an anti-aggressive serotonergic influence; instead serotonin seems to modulate aggressive behavior by exerting a parallel-coupled inhibitory role on androgen-driven aggression, which is irrelevant in the absence of the hormone, and the arresting of which leads to enhanced maladaptive aggression

Seasonal Migration Determined by a Trade-Off between Predator Avoidance and Growth

Migration is a common phenomenon in many organisms, terrestrial as well as aquatic, and considerable effort has been spent to understand the evolution of migratory behaviour and its consequences for population and community dynamics. In aquatic systems, studies on migration have mainly been focused on commercially important fish species, such as salmon and trout. However, seasonal mass-migrations may occur also among other freshwater fish, e.g. in cyprinids that leave lakes and migrate into streams and wetlands in the fall and return back to the lake in spring. In a conceptual model, we hypothesized that this is an adaptive behaviour in response to seasonal changes in predation (P) and growth (G) and that migrating fish change habitat so as to minimise the ratio between predation mortality and growth rate (P/G). Estimates from bioenergetic modelling showed that seasonal changes in the ratio between predator consumption rate and prey growth rate followed the predictions from the conceptual model and also gave more precise predictions for the timing of the habitat change. By quantifying the migration of more than 1800 individually marked fish, we showed that actual migration patterns followed predictions with a remarkable accuracy, suggesting that migration patterns have evolved in response to seasonally fluctuating trade-offs between predator avoidance and foraging gains. Thus, the conceptual model provides a mechanistic understanding to mass–migration in prey fish. Further, we also show that the dominant prey fish is actually absent from the lake during a major part of the year, which should have strong implications for the dynamics of the lake ecosystem through direct and indirect food-web interactions