PARENTING RELATIONSHIP DURING ADOLESCENCE: A STUDY OF JAMMU (URBAN)

<p>The present study was undertaken to study the role of parents during adolescence. The sample size for<br>the present study consists of 60 parents of the adolescent boys (n=30) and girls (n=30) and Parenting Relationship<br>Questionnaire (PRQ) was used to gather the data. The major findings of the present study shows an average level<br>of attachment of parents with their adolescents, an average level of- communication, disciplinary practices, parent's<br>involvement with their child, parenting confidence, their satisfaction with school and relational frustration.<br>Significant differences among fathers and mothers of boys and girls were observed in 'disciplinary practices' in the<br>present research.</p> <p> </p

Data collection.

Access to adequate and nutritious food is important for the current and future health of adolescent girls. Interventions often focus on the individual as responsible for their own health ignoring the complex structural issues that underlie optimal nutrition. In South Asia gender inequalities have been noted as an important determinant of poor nutrition among women and their young children, but analysis of adolescent girls’ diets and what influences these are rarely undertaken. Therefore, we sought to analyse the factors affecting what and where girls’ eat and what affects their behaviour in the plains of Nepal, using a cultural-ecological approach. We analysed a secondary qualitative dataset of focus group discussions with adolescent girls aged 12–19 years old, young mothers, mothers-in-law, and older female key informants. Eating was heavily influenced by patriarchal norms. Boys had preferential access to food, money, and freedom of movement to appreciate their future role in providing for the family. Food was an investment, and boys were perceived to have more nutritional need than girls. Girls were not perceived to be a good return on investment of food, and eating practices sought to prepare them for life as a subservient daughter-in-law and wife. Obedience and sacrifice were valued in girls, and they were expected to eat less and do more housework than boys. Girls’ eating and behaviour was constrained to maintain self and family honour. Interventions should acknowledge cultural influences on eating and engage multiple actors in addressing harmful gender norms which limit eating and prevent girls from reaching their potential.</div

Cultural-ecological model of food and nutrition.

Access to adequate and nutritious food is important for the current and future health of adolescent girls. Interventions often focus on the individual as responsible for their own health ignoring the complex structural issues that underlie optimal nutrition. In South Asia gender inequalities have been noted as an important determinant of poor nutrition among women and their young children, but analysis of adolescent girls’ diets and what influences these are rarely undertaken. Therefore, we sought to analyse the factors affecting what and where girls’ eat and what affects their behaviour in the plains of Nepal, using a cultural-ecological approach. We analysed a secondary qualitative dataset of focus group discussions with adolescent girls aged 12–19 years old, young mothers, mothers-in-law, and older female key informants. Eating was heavily influenced by patriarchal norms. Boys had preferential access to food, money, and freedom of movement to appreciate their future role in providing for the family. Food was an investment, and boys were perceived to have more nutritional need than girls. Girls were not perceived to be a good return on investment of food, and eating practices sought to prepare them for life as a subservient daughter-in-law and wife. Obedience and sacrifice were valued in girls, and they were expected to eat less and do more housework than boys. Girls’ eating and behaviour was constrained to maintain self and family honour. Interventions should acknowledge cultural influences on eating and engage multiple actors in addressing harmful gender norms which limit eating and prevent girls from reaching their potential.</div

Invertebrate host-induced pressure is specific to CpT (and not TpC) and CpG (and not GpC) dinucleotides.

<p>(a) Box plot comparing the CpT_O/E/TpC_O/E ratios among large DNA viruses infecting invertebrates and vertebrates. The CpT_O/E/TpC_O/E ratios were significantly lower in large DNA viruses infecting invertebrates as compared to those infecting vertebrates (0.76±0.11 vs 0.93±0.14; <i>P</i><0.0001) clearly demonstrating that CpT dinucleotides but not TpC dinucleotides are subjected to host-induced pressures. (b) Box plot comparing the relative CpG_O/E/GpC_O/E ratios dinucleotides among large DNA viruses infecting invertebrates and vertebrates. The CpG_O/E/GpC_O/E ratios among large DNA viruses infecting invertebrates were significantly higher than those infecting vertebrates (1.17±0.32 vs 1.06±0.28; <i>P</i> = 0.01), demonstrating that CpG dinucleotides but not GpC dinucleotides are subjected to host-induced pressures among large DNA viruses infecting invertebrate hosts.</p

CpT(ApG) depletion and CpG excess among large DNA viruses infecting invertebrate hosts.

<p>(a) Box plot showing the distribution of CpT(ApG) dinucleotides among large DNA viruses infecting invertebrate- and vertebrate hosts. The depletion of CpT(ApG) dinucleotides is more pronounced among large DNA viruses infecting invertebrates as compared to those infecting vertebrates (mean±SD: 0.72±0.10 vs 0.96±0.09; <i>P</i><0.0001). (b) Box plot showing the distribution of CpG dinucleotides among large DNA viruses infecting invertebrate- and vertebrate hosts. Large DNA viruses infecting invertebrates had a significantly higher CpG_O/E ratio than those infecting vertebrates (1.41±0.29 vs 0.99±0.26; <i>P</i><0.0001).</p

Systematic CpT (ApG) Depletion and CpG Excess Are Unique Genomic Signatures of Large DNA Viruses Infecting Invertebrates

<div><p>Differences in the relative abundance of dinucleotides, if any may provide important clues on host-driven evolution of viruses. We studied dinucleotide frequencies of large DNA viruses infecting vertebrates (n = 105; viruses infecting mammals = 99; viruses infecting aves = 6; viruses infecting reptiles = 1) and invertebrates (n = 88; viruses infecting insects = 84; viruses infecting crustaceans = 4). We have identified systematic depletion of CpT(ApG) dinucleotides and over-representation of CpG dinucleotides as the unique genomic signature of large DNA viruses infecting invertebrates. Detailed investigation of this unique genomic signature suggests the existence of invertebrate host-induced pressures specifically targeting CpT(ApG) and CpG dinucleotides. The depletion of CpT dinucleotides among large DNA viruses infecting invertebrates is at least in part, explained by non-canonical DNA methylation by the infected host. Our findings highlight the role of invertebrate host-related factors in shaping virus evolution and they also provide the necessary framework for future studies on evolution, epigenetics and molecular biology of viruses infecting this group of hosts.</p></div

CpT and CpG dinucleotide frequencies: Genome-wide vs coding DNA sequences (CDS) among large DNA viruses infecting invertebrates.

<p>CpT and CpG dinucleotide frequencies: Genome-wide vs coding DNA sequences (CDS) among large DNA viruses infecting invertebrates.</p

Neutrality plot.

<p>Evolution of large DNA viruses is primarily governed by mutational pressure. Scatter plot demonstrating a strong, near-perfect correlation between GC at the synonymous third codon position (GC₃) (X-axis) and non-synonymous first/second codon positions (GC_1,2) (Y-axis) among (a) large DNA viruses infecting invertebrate hosts and (b) large DNA viruses infecting vertebrate hosts. This finding suggesting that all codon positions are similarly affected and hence mutational pressure and not translational selection is primarily responsible for the observed differences in nucleotide composition among large DNA viruses.</p

CpG_O/E ratios are not influenced by GC content.

<p>Scatter plot demonstrating the lack of correlation between CpG_O/E ratios (X-axis) and GC content (Y-axis) among (a) large DNA viruses infecting invertebrate hosts and (b) large DNA viruses infecting vertebrate hosts.</p