HIV/AIDS and Adolescent's School-Work Choices in Malawi

Malawi is facing a severe HIV/AIDS Pandemic. With an estimated prevalence rate of 14.2%, it ranks eight in the world. About 900,000 Malawians were infected by 2003 and there were110,000 new infections and 87,000 deaths due to HIV/AIDS in 2003. The disease has poten tially devastating impacts. For example, 'taking children out of school' is mentioned as one of the coping mechanisms (Garbus 2003) but evidence is mixed. Doctor (2004) found no statistically significant difference between enrollment of orphans and non-orphans and mentioned an effective extended family structure as explanation. However, HIV/AIDS, poverty, macroeconomic policies, and food shortages are reported to render informal safety networks of the extended family systems irrelevant (Garbus 2003). Some evidence seems to point in this direction (Nankhuni 2005). This research shows that adolescents who are orphaned and those who do not live with their parents are less likely to attend school, spend less hours on school work but more hours on domestic and paid work. Children in households that have adults with chronic illnesses that are associated with HIV/AIDS symptoms are also more likely to be absent from school and spend more hours on d omestic and paid work. These results suggest that HIV/AIDS contributes to low investments in children in Malawi. The results also suggest that the extended family system is weakening due to pressure from increased number of orphans and the low economic status of most Malawians since even parents that are living foster out their children and these children do worse than orphaned children.HIV/AIDS, Demographic Economics, Time Allocation, Malawi, Labor and Human Capital, 01, J1, J2, Human Capital, 05,

THE EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION ON WOMEN'S AND CHILDREN'S TIME ALLOCATION DECISIONS IN MALAWI: IMPACT ON CHILDREN'S WELFARE

The majority of the Malawi people is rural (85%) and lives primarily on subsistence farming (NSO 2001). More than 90% of households collect and use fuel wood as their main source of cooking energy (NEC 2001; NSO 2000). However, between 1990 and 2000, Malawi experienced an average annual deforestation rate of 2.4% that was significantly higher than both Africa's average deforestation rate of 0.78%, and the world's average deforestation rate of 0.22% (UN FAO 2001). Malawi is also reported as one of the countries that will experience water stress by 2025 (PRB 2002). The rapid depletion of natural resources can have significant consequences for the quality of people's lives. Since Malawian women and children are primarily responsible for rural transportation work including collection of fuel wood and water (Edmonds et al. 1995), environmental degradation is expected to affect them disproportionately. This study will investigate the effects of environmental degradation on women's and children's time allocation decisions and the implications on children's school performance and health. The importance of relationships between population, the environment, and poverty has been acknowledged at both international and regional levels since the 1970's (United Nations 1997). However, there is a serious dearth of empirical studies on the nature of such relationships (United Nations 1997). The lack of studies has been cited as one of the reasons frustrating policy makers in their attempt to adopt sustainable development efforts (Arizpe et al. 1994). Some recent studies in this area have looked at effects of environmental degradation on women's fertility (Filmer and Pritchett 1996; Aggarwal et al. 2001); women's time allocation decisions (Cooke 2000); farm productivity (Cooke 1998). Earlier work by the authors showed that environmental degradation was associated with lower school enrollment and high domestic child labor hours, especially for girls (Nankhuni and Findeis 2002). This analysis extends that research to investigate the impact of environmental degradation on school performance. Attempts to look at impact on child health were done by Aggarwal et al. (2001) in South Africa but no significant impact was found. This study will also contribute to the research on effects of environmental degradation on children's health. Methodology Data Data from an Integrated Household Survey of 10,698 households conducted in Malawi in 1997-98 by the Malawi National Statistics Office are used. The data contain information on demographic and socio-economic characteristics of individuals and households, including child levels of education and health. The data also include time allocation information on domestic activities that include time spent on fuel wood and water collection. Information on each household's access to different water sources and whether the household relies on purchasing rather than collecting fuel wood as their main source of cooking energy is also available. Supplementing these data are estimates of fuel wood availability (GOM 1987) and information on access and quality of schools and health facilities at the district level (Benson 2002). Theoretical framework Freeman (1993) proposes that the basis for measuring the economic value of changes in resource environmental systems is the effects on human welfare. Therefore, the starting point for analyzing the impacts of environmental degradation is utility theory. The household production-utility model based on Becker (1965, 1993) and as adapted to farming households by Singh et al. (1976) will be the theoretical approach used in this paper. In this model, households derive utility from consumption of household farm-produced goods and from having children. They also derive positive utility from children's quality normally reflected in the children's health and education. The household's utility is maximized subject to budget, farm and household technology, and time constraints. Assuming that an interior solution to the household's maximization problem exists, reduced-form demand equations for children's health and education can be derived. These demands will be functions of shadow wages, prices, individual and household socio-economic and demographic characteristics, and the state of the environment. As the environment degrades, more hours of work are spent on fuel wood and water collection. This results in increased price of education thereby decreasing demand for education, as children may be needed for domestic work. Similarly, if women in more deforested areas cannot spend enough time on farming, cooking, and childcare this will act as an increase in cost of children's health resulting in the children's poor health (Kumar and Hotchkiss 1988). Estimation strategy The effect of environmental degradation on children's quality will be estimated by adding environmental quality variables in school performance and child health models. The school performance indicators are children's attendance of senior primary school and being in a certain class at the appropriate age for that class. The child health variables are anthropometric measures of weight, height, and weight for height. Possible endogeneity of child schooling, child health, domestic child labor, and fertility decisions will be tested and corrected for, where appropriate. It is expected that environmental degradation will negatively affect children welfare.Environmental Economics and Policy,

HIV/AIDS and Adolescent's School-Work Choices in Malawi

Malawi is facing a severe HIV/AIDS Pandemic. With an estimated prevalence rate of 14.2%, it ranks eight in the world. About 900,000 Malawians were infected by 2003 and there were110,000 new infections and 87,000 deaths due to HIV/AIDS in 2003. The disease has poten tially devastating impacts. For example, 'taking children out of school' is mentioned as one of the coping mechanisms (Garbus 2003) but evidence is mixed. Doctor (2004) found no statistically significant difference between enrollment of orphans and non-orphans and mentioned an effective extended family structure as explanation. However, HIV/AIDS, poverty, macroeconomic policies, and food shortages are reported to render informal safety networks of the extended family systems irrelevant (Garbus 2003). Some evidence seems to point in this direction (Nankhuni 2005). This research shows that adolescents who are orphaned and those who do not live with their parents are less likely to attend school, spend less hours on school work but more hours on domestic and paid work. Children in households that have adults with chronic illnesses that are associated with HIV/AIDS symptoms are also more likely to be absent from school and spend more hours on d omestic and paid work. These results suggest that HIV/AIDS contributes to low investments in children in Malawi. The results also suggest that the extended family system is weakening due to pressure from increased number of orphans and the low economic status of most Malawians since even parents that are living foster out their children and these children do worse than orphaned children

THE EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION ON WOMEN'S AND CHILDREN'S TIME ALLOCATION DECISIONS IN MALAWI: IMPACT ON CHILDREN'S WELFARE

The majority of the Malawi people is rural (85%) and lives primarily on subsistence farming (NSO 2001). More than 90% of households collect and use fuel wood as their main source of cooking energy (NEC 2001; NSO 2000). However, between 1990 and 2000, Malawi experienced an average annual deforestation rate of 2.4% that was significantly higher than both Africa's average deforestation rate of 0.78%, and the world's average deforestation rate of 0.22% (UN FAO 2001). Malawi is also reported as one of the countries that will experience water stress by 2025 (PRB 2002). The rapid depletion of natural resources can have significant consequences for the quality of people's lives. Since Malawian women and children are primarily responsible for rural transportation work including collection of fuel wood and water (Edmonds et al. 1995), environmental degradation is expected to affect them disproportionately. This study will investigate the effects of environmental degradation on women's and children's time allocation decisions and the implications on children's school performance and health. The importance of relationships between population, the environment, and poverty has been acknowledged at both international and regional levels since the 1970's (United Nations 1997). However, there is a serious dearth of empirical studies on the nature of such relationships (United Nations 1997). The lack of studies has been cited as one of the reasons frustrating policy makers in their attempt to adopt sustainable development efforts (Arizpe et al. 1994). Some recent studies in this area have looked at effects of environmental degradation on women's fertility (Filmer and Pritchett 1996; Aggarwal et al. 2001); women's time allocation decisions (Cooke 2000); farm productivity (Cooke 1998). Earlier work by the authors showed that environmental degradation was associated with lower school enrollment and high domestic child labor hours, especially for girls (Nankhuni and Findeis 2002). This analysis extends that research to investigate the impact of environmental degradation on school performance. Attempts to look at impact on child health were done by Aggarwal et al. (2001) in South Africa but no significant impact was found. This study will also contribute to the research on effects of environmental degradation on children's health. Methodology Data Data from an Integrated Household Survey of 10,698 households conducted in Malawi in 1997-98 by the Malawi National Statistics Office are used. The data contain information on demographic and socio-economic characteristics of individuals and households, including child levels of education and health. The data also include time allocation information on domestic activities that include time spent on fuel wood and water collection. Information on each household's access to different water sources and whether the household relies on purchasing rather than collecting fuel wood as their main source of cooking energy is also available. Supplementing these data are estimates of fuel wood availability (GOM 1987) and information on access and quality of schools and health facilities at the district level (Benson 2002). Theoretical framework Freeman (1993) proposes that the basis for measuring the economic value of changes in resource environmental systems is the effects on human welfare. Therefore, the starting point for analyzing the impacts of environmental degradation is utility theory. The household production-utility model based on Becker (1965, 1993) and as adapted to farming households by Singh et al. (1976) will be the theoretical approach used in this paper. In this model, households derive utility from consumption of household farm-produced goods and from having children. They also derive positive utility from children's quality normally reflected in the children's health and education. The household's utility is maximized subject to budget, farm and household technology, and time constraints. Assuming that an interior solution to the household's maximization problem exists, reduced-form demand equations for children's health and education can be derived. These demands will be functions of shadow wages, prices, individual and household socio-economic and demographic characteristics, and the state of the environment. As the environment degrades, more hours of work are spent on fuel wood and water collection. This results in increased price of education thereby decreasing demand for education, as children may be needed for domestic work. Similarly, if women in more deforested areas cannot spend enough time on farming, cooking, and childcare this will act as an increase in cost of children's health resulting in the children's poor health (Kumar and Hotchkiss 1988). Estimation strategy The effect of environmental degradation on children's quality will be estimated by adding environmental quality variables in school performance and child health models. The school performance indicators are children's attendance of senior primary school and being in a certain class at the appropriate age for that class. The child health variables are anthropometric measures of weight, height, and weight for height. Possible endogeneity of child schooling, child health, domestic child labor, and fertility decisions will be tested and corrected for, where appropriate. It is expected that environmental degradation will negatively affect children welfare

NATURAL RESOURCE COLLECTION WORK AND SCHOOLING IN MALAWI

This paper presents results of research that investigates if long hours of work spent by children in fuel wood collection and water collection activities, hereafter referred to as resource (collection) work, are related to the probability that a child aged 6-14 will attend school. Possible endogeneity of resource work hours is corrected for, using two-stage conditional maximum likelihood estimation. Using data from a 1997-98 Malawi Integrated Household Survey (IHS) conducted by the National Statistics Office (NSO), the study finds that children are significantly involved in resource collection work and their probability of attending school decreases with increases in hours spent on this work. The study further shows that girls spend more hours on resource work and are more likely to be going to school while burdened by this work. Consequently, girls may find it difficult to progress well in school. However, girls are not necessarily less likely to be attending school. The results further show that presence of more women in a household is associated with a lower burden of resource work on children and a higher probability of children's school attendance while that of men is not. Finally, the study shows that children from the most environmentally degraded districts of central and southern Malawi are less likely to attend school and few of them have progressed to secondary school compared to those from the north region districts

AN ANALYSIS OF MALAWI’S PIGEON PEA VALUE CHAIN

Background : Pigeon pea (Cajunus Cajan) is a crop that is well adapted in the semi-arid tropics. The legume is also highly drought tolerant (compared to maize, tobacco and cotton), and its long taproot is advantageous in accessing nutrients in deeper soil profiles (Snapp et al. 2003). The crop is also well adapted to the needs of poor smallholder farmers in the semi-arid tropics (Jones, Freeman, and Le Monaco 2002), because compared to maize, an important cash crop in Malawi, pigeon pea production is less resource intensive.1 Because of its adaptation to the agro-ecology in eastern Kenya, southern Malawi, northern Mozambique, southern Tanzania and northern Uganda, pigeon pea is a legume of choice grown by local population and the crop is particularly important in the diets in these regions (Jones, Freeman, and Le Monaco 2002). Smallholder farmers in eastern and southern Africa grow pigeon pea for subsistence and as a cash crop (Jones, Freeman, and Le Monaco 2002). At the household-level, the plant has multiple uses— its dried seed, pods and immature seeds are consumed as green vegetables; the leaves and stems are used for fodder and the dry stems are used as fuel (Simtowe et al. 2010). Compared to the dominant maize crop, pigeon pea grain has a high protein content of 21 to 25 percent (ibid), thus making it a valuable source of protein for many poor families who cannot afford other sources of protein, such as dairy and meat (Me-Nsope and Larkins 2016). The crop is also promoted in Malawi for its potential contribution to soil fertility through biological nitrogen fixation as well as from the leaf fall and recycling of the nutrients (Mhango, Snapp, and Phiri 2012; Snapp et al. 2002). Pigeon pea also has a strong potential to contribute to national food security through market possibilities. Almost two decades ago, Orr et al (2014) found that in the southern region of Malawi, the legume accounts for approximately 20% of household income among poor farmers. Several studies observe the potential the crop offers to improve livelihoods of resource-poor farmers (Bie 2008; De Schutter 2010); Mula and Saxena 2010). Despite these numerous potential benefits, smallholders continue to face numerous challenges that limit their ability to reap these benefits. Several questions remain about the performance, competitiveness, and profitability of pigeon pea production and marketing, and the ability of the value chain to contribute to the food security and poverty reduction objectives of the country of Malawi

Is the Future of Malawi’s Pigeon Pea Industry at the Mercy of India? An Analysis of Malawi’s Pigeon Pea Value Chain

Key Findings • Pigeon pea production and yields have increased steadily over the years, making it the most important legume crop accounting for 35% of total legume production in Malawi, in 2016/17. • It is mostly grown in the Southern region of Malawi while crop suitability maps indicate that the Central and Northern regions are relatively more suitable. • The crop is grown on small pieces of land (on average 0.5 ha/household) and is mostly intercropped with maize. • Some of the constraints include: limited access by farmers to improved seed varieties partly due to limited availability of the seeds and limited access to financial resources to enable the farmers purchase the seeds; limited access to extension by farmers; pest and disease attacks that are not managed; low farm gate prices, and limited access to markets. • India is the largest importer of pigeon pea from Malawi. However, data is not available to show how much of the crop crosses Zambia, Tanzania and/or Mozambique borders through informal trade. • In 2016/17 prices of pigeon pea plummeted (from a high of Mk 1,000/kg (>$1) in some markets to as low as ~Mk 100/kg in some markets in 2018. This is partly due to a ban on imports into India. Despite this, pigeon pea hactarege is estimated to decrease by only 9.2% and production by 10.8% in 2017/18 season. • To strengthen the pigeon pea value chain, Malawi needs to invest in the seed and extension systems, strengthen farmer organizations, secure the India market through diplomacy, diversify the export market and create demand within the country

Is the Future of Malawi’s Pigeon Pea Industry at the Mercy of India?

KEY FINDINGS -Pigeon pea production and yields have increased steadily over the years, making it the most important legume crop accounting for 35% of total legume production in Malawi, in 2016/17. -It is mostly grown in the Southern region of Malawi while crop suitability maps indicate that the Central and Northern regions are relatively more suitable. -The crop is grown on small pieces of land (on average 0.5 ha/household) and is mostly intercropped with maize. -Some of the constraints include: limited access by farmers to improved seed varieties partly due to limited availability of the seeds and limited access to financial resources to enable the farmers purchase the seeds; limited access to extension by farmers; pest and disease attacks that are not managed; low farm gate prices, and limited access to markets. -India is the largest importer of pigeon pea from Malawi. However, data is not available to show how much of the crop crosses Zambia, Tanzania and/or Mozambique borders through informal trade. -In 2016/17 prices of pigeon pea plummeted (from a high of Mk 1,000/kg (>$1) in some markets to as low as ~Mk 100/kg in some markets in 2018. This is partly due to a ban on imports into India. Despite this, pigeon pea hactarege is estimated to decrease by only 9.2% and production by 10.8% in 2017/18 season. -To strengthen the pigeon pea value chain, Malawi needs to invest in the seed and extension systems, strengthen farmer organizations, secure the India market through diplomacy, diversify the export market and create demand within the country